PROMOTING A POSITIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT: A HANDBOOK TO MANAGING CLASSROOM BEHAVIOUR

Transcription

1 PROMOTING A POSITIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT: A HANDBOOK TO MANAGING CLASSROOM BEHAVIOUR Robert Dart Student Teacher Interaction Handbook Assignment Due 8 th May 2013

2 Contents Contents 1 Introduction 2 The effective learning environment. 2 Establishing a quality learning environment. 3 The developing child 3 Erickson s theory of psychosocial development 3 Applying Erickson s theory of psychosocial development 5 Piaget s stages of Cognitive development 5 Applying Piaget s ideas in the classroom 6 Vygotsky s zone of proximal development 6 Gardner s theory of multiple intelligences 7 Maslow s hierarchy of needs 8 Summary of learning theories 9 Preventative Discipline 9 Strategies and examples of preventative discipline 9 Strategies for preventative discipline 10 Supportive Discipline 12 Strategies for supportive discipline 12 Strategies and examples of supportive discipline 13 Corrective Discipline 13 Strategies for corrective discipline 14 Six step strategy for taking control 14 Video examples 16 References 16 1

3 Introduction A significant part of the positive learning environment is a well behaved class. The teacher typically wants their students to be positive, well behaved, show initiative, take responsibility, and make a strong effort to learn (Charles, 2002). In other words the teacher wishes to promote a positive and therefore, effective learning environment within the classroom. Despite an acceptance that no single strategy is effective all the time for all learners, systematic approaches to effective teaching can be applied, based on a set of well-founded principles (Killen, 2007). The focus of teaching should be on learning, but without order and control in the classroom this is impossible (Vick, 2013). Classroom management is largely controlled by the teacher s disciplinary system. Three levels of discipline: preventative discipline; supportive discipline; and, corrective discipline, have been defined (Charles, 2002). This handbook discusses theories of child development and applies this to strategies that can be applied in the classroom to support the three discipline types. The effective learning environment. Needs to be: Safe and comfortable; Interesting, challenging and realistic; Well structured (students are led toward important and meaningful long-term goals). Classroom management strategies without effective teaching, will not prevent misbehaviour in the classroom (McInerney & McInerney, 2002) Classroom Discipline 3 Types: Preventative Supportive Corrective Students must be: Valued and respected; Trusted (allowed to have a say in what, when and how they learn, and in establishing classroom norms); Responsible for their behaviour and learning (expect all children to achieve high standards that match their ability). Adapted from Killen (2007 p. 23) 2

4 Establishing a quality learning environment. Starts with: Learning students names; Having a genuine interest in their backgrounds, interests and stories; Setting high standards of interaction with students; Identifying strengths and positives in the students; Believing that each student can achieve high standards; Continually asking How can I make my classroom a more pleasant and supportive place for learners. This will: Lead to students that are encouraged to become and remain academically engaged and strive to achieve high standards. Adapted from Killen (2007 p. 26) The developing child The children in your classroom have experienced a range of situations and conditions, based largely on where they come from, and their family situation. These experiences impact on the child s emotional, moral and social being, which also impact on how they learn. Hence, every child in the classroom is likely to have a different set of values and abilities when it comes to their learning. As well as these differences, children go through stages of development, which continue into adulthood. Erickson s theory of psychosocial development Erickson s theory of psychosocial development described psychological growth and how people s feelings and beliefs change from infancy to old age (Snowman et al., 2009). These stages are shown in Table 1. Erickson defines each stage based on opposing qualities that individuals typically develop during this time (Snowman et al., 2009). 3

5 Age Stage Psychosocial Environmental crisis Strength Influence 0-1 Infancy Trust vs mistrust Hope Maternal 2-3 Early childhood Autonomy vs shame, doubt Willpower Both parents or adult substitutes 4-5 Preschool, Initiative vs guilt Purpose Parents, family, friends nursery school 6-11 Middle childhood Industry vs inferiority Competence School Adolescence Identity vs identity confusion Fidelity Peers Young Adulthood Intimacy vs isolation Love Partners: spouse, lover, friends Middle age Generativity vs stagnation Care Family, society Over 65 Old age Integrity vs despair Wisdom All humans Table 1: Erickson s psychosocial development stages (Matthews, 2013). Erickson describes the process as psychological crisis, which occurs when people feel compelled to adjust to society expectations, but are not sure they are prepared to perform them yet (Snowman et al., 2009). Stage 3 and 4, industry versus inferiority and identity versus role confusion are the stages of the middle to high school child. During stage 3, the child develops a sense of industry if encouraged and helped to persevere, finish and do things well. The converse will result in a feeling of inferiority and may never learn to enjoy intellectual work (Snowman et al., 2009). The child develops their identity during stage 4. During this time the child develops the skills to take a meaningful place in society, based on responses from others to their actions (Snowman et al., 2009). As a teacher I can contribute to the child s sense of identity by praising their accomplishments and seeing them as individuals (Snowman et al., 2009). At this time, boys may be encouraged to become more sensitive to the needs of others, and girls encouraged to become more achievement oriented (Snowman et al., 2009). Identity Identity is a relatively stable conception of where and how we fit into society that is strongly influenced by the perception of our physical appearance, the goals we establish and achieve, and recognition from significant others in the environment (Snowman et al., 2009). Children spend a large portion of their time in the classroom during these stages. The role and influence of the teacher is therefore a strong influence on the child s psychosocial development. 4

6 Applying Erickson s theory of psychosocial development Primary and middle school years Help children experience a sense of industry by presenting tasks that they can complete successfully. Secondary school years Bear in mind the significance of each child s search for identity. Adapted from Snowman et al., (2009) Piaget s stages of Cognitive development In a similar way to Erickson, Piaget identified stages of development (Table 2). Many of the changes in cognitive development identified by Piaget impact how the child learns. Teachers need to identify the stage each child has reached, and consider the implications of this when teaching. Cognitive development Our ability to think, to reason and to understand the world around us (Krause, Bochner, & Duchesne, 2003). Age Stage Main achievement 0-2 Sensorimotor Motor and sensory activities dominant seeing, touching, tasting, smelling. Object permanence things continue to exist, even when out of sight. Goal-directed use their own actions to achieve desired goals, e.g. attention. Deferred imitation ability to copy actions such as sounds and facial expressions 2 6/7 Pre-operational Symbolic thought acquisition of language. Egocentrism belief that everyone see the world in the same way they do. Centration focus on one or two aspects of a situation and not notice other, less dominant features. 7 11/12 Concrete operations 11 and over Formal operations Conservation ability to see that certain properties of an object remain unchanged when the appearance is rearranged. Reversibility recognise that materials can be changed back to their original form, e.g. water can be poured back into a glass. Seriation ability to place objects in order e.g, by size. Classification ability to group objects by criterion Abstract thought ability to see beyond concrete realities and consider imaginable realities. Deductive reasoning use rules and principles to find solutions. Inductive reasoning ability to define (induce) rules from knowledge and apply them to predict new outcomes. Table 2: Piagets stages of cognitive development (Krause et al., 2003). 5

7 During stage 3 (7 to 11/12 years of age) the teacher needs to provide concrete experiences that allow the child to experiment and test ideas, and to begin to think logically (Krause et al., 2003). Students thinking should be challenged, which forces them to extend their knowledge for later learning. Classification and seriation develops late in stage 3 and means that the child has developed the ability to apply logical reasoning and can move beyond concrete experiences to solve problems and think hypothetically (Krause et al., 2003). Once the child has reached stage 4 they should be provided with opportunities to extend their knowledge and ideas. Their assumptions should be challenged and they should be encouraged to express their ideas in different ways, e.g. orally in debates, discussions and presentations, and written in various forms (Krause et al., 2003). Applying Piaget s ideas in the classroom Listen and observe the children s activities to assess their level of cognitive development. Provide learning opportunities suitable to the cognitive level of the child, making sure that the child is allowed opportunities to explore things for themselves. Provide learning opportunities that challenge children s thinking and allows them to find links between known and unknown knowledge. Adapted from (Krause et al., 2003) Vygotsky s zone of proximal development Vygotsky s ideas overlap Piaget s to an extent, but Vygotsky identified that sociocultural conditions also impacted on cognitive development (Krause et al., 2003). Vygotsky argued that when guidance is given to two children of similar development, one child may be able to reach a much higher level of understanding than the other. Vygotsky referred to this as the zone of proximal development (ZPD) (Figure 1), defined as the distance between actual and potential development (Krause et al., 2003). 6

8 Figure 1: Zone of proximal development. Within the ZPD the child is close to being able to resolve the problem on their own and will do so with assistance. Below the ZPD is what the child already knows. Too much time spent in this area will lead to boredom and possible misbehaviour. Above the ZPD the child will find the work too difficult and may become anxious (Nicholson, 2013). A child working within the ZPD is interested and ready to learn. A good teacher will understand this, and structure lessons that allow the child to gradually expand upon their existing knowledge. Applying the social aspect of Vygotsky to Piaget s stages of cognitive development can enhance the learning experience of the child. Hence, children learn best when they are being taught at their cognitive level and when working with peers and/or teacher guidance. Gardner s theory of multiple intelligences Gardner s view is that cognitive intelligence is comprised of nine intelligences (Table 3) (Moran et al., 2006). Gardner s views have not been widely accepted by psychologists, but they have become accepted in education because they explain why apparently bright students would struggle with traditional teaching methods (Hope, 2010). The multiple intelligences are relatively independent but interacting cognitive capacities (Moran et al., 2006). Most people will have strengths in one or two intelligences, which is reflected in their strengths. For example, a dancer is likely to have strong Musical, spatial and kinaesthetic intelligences. 7

9 Intelligence Ability to.. Linguistic. understand and use spoken and written communication. Logical-mathematical. understand and use logic and numerical symbols and operations. Musical, understand and use such concepts as rhythm, pitch, melody, and harmony. Spatial. orient and manipulate three-dimensional space. Bodily-kinesthetic. coordinate physical movement. Naturalistic. distinguish and categorize objects or phenomena in nature. Interpersonal. understand and interact well with other people. Intrapersonal. understand and use one's thoughts, feelings, preferences, and interests. Existential. contemplate phenomena or questions beyond sensory data, such as the infinite and infinitesimal. Table 3: Gardner s Multiple intelligences (Moran et al., 2006) to promote learning across Students will react differently to various teaching methods, student intelligence depending on their strengths (Moran et al., 2006). profiles, teachers need to Traditional didactic style teaching caters for the linguistic offer students rich intelligence and is therefore not going to relate to most of the experiences activities in children in the class. Teachers therefore need to offer content which they can engage in a variety of ways and activities, which enables students to with the material personally rather than just learn in several dimensions at once (Moran et al., 2006). absorb it in an abstract, Maslow s hierarchy of needs decontextualised way. As well as catering for the cognitive level of the student, (Moran, Kornhaber, & teachers also have to consider the student s needs. All Gardner, 2006) students share many needs and these will influence on their behaviour and learning in the classroom (Brady & Scully, 2005). Maslow describes human needs in a hierarchy (Figure 2) and suggests that a deficiency in a lower level will result in adjusted behaviour to meet the deficiency (Brady & Scully, 2005). For example, it is difficult for a student to stay on task, if they are hungry or cold. Figure 2: Maslow s Hierachy of needs 1 1 Image sourced from (28/04/13) 8

10 It can be seen from Figure 2 that basic needs of good health, safety, and a sense of belonging are essential for a student to have a good self-esteem and be able to learn effectively. These basic needs are typically assumed by the teacher, yet they may explain why a student is misbehaving. Therefore, asking a misbehaving student questions like, is something wrong, or, is everything ok, may reveal a problem that is effecting their feeling of safety or comfort. Summary of learning theories As shown above, the way children learn and develop changes depending on their age and sociocultural background. Each child will also have strengths (Gardner s multiple intelligences) in different areas, which will impact how they learn. As well as the above, the student s needs must also be met. Preventative Discipline Misbehaviour in the classroom is disruptive for the whole class, hence preventing behaviour problems has to be the priority. Most misbehaviour in the classroom can be prevented by: having an effective teaching style; providing interesting and meaningful lessons; and, treating students sensitively (Charles, 2002 p. 236). Dealing with misbehaviour requires a reactive response, which is disruptive to the lesson, it is far better to incorporate preventative measures that minimise misbehaviour (Nicholson, 2013). Strategies and examples of preventative discipline 1. Making Lessons interesting When topics are presented in novel and varied ways, student interest is increased and they become motivated to learn (Eby, Herrell, & Jordan, 2006). Student interest can be generated and maintained by making the subject relevant, showing how the topic can be related to what is happening in the students lives, and how the outcomes are valued beyond 9

11 the classroom (Brady & Scully, 2005). The degree of student interest is linked to their motivation (Brady & Scully, 2005). Strategies for preventative discipline Make lessons enjoyable and interesting. Some examples of generating and maintaining interest: Surprise them, do something different: Be mindful of, and meet student needs for security, hope, acceptance, dignity, power, enjoyment, and competence. Be respectful, considerate, understanding, and helpful. Develop (with student input) clear expectations of acceptable classroom behaviour. Promote good manners and respect for each other Teach students how to react to situations that may arise, which do not disrupt the class. Show a mystery object Play a piece of music or video clip Stage and incident Display an image Adapted from Charles (2002 p. 236) From (Brady & Scully, 2005) Be enthusiastic and positive about the subject. Enthusiasm is infectious and the teacher s enthusiasm or lack of, will be reflected in how the students react to the lesson. Tasks need to be challenging, but achievable. The desire to overcome or solve, a challenge is important to students and helps to build their confidence as well as knowledge base (Nicholson, 2013). Optimising the challenge to be suitable for the student level is difficult. As discussed above in the ZPD, a lack of challenge will lead to boredom and a challenge that is too difficult will lead to anxiety and a sense of failure (Nicholson, 2013). Example 1. Physics The Cartesian diver, video 1. The teacher disguises the effect of pressure and density on a test tube in a bottle, as magic. This gains the students interest and gives them a desire to find out more about what is happening. Example 2. A lesson from the best, video 2. In this lesson the teacher Philip Beadle, generates interest in the topic, by setting up a debate in the form of a tennis match, where the two debaters sit facing each other as if playing tennis. Example 3. Love 'Em or Loathe 'Em, video 3. In the last ten minutes of this video the teacher really motivates his class by giving positive feedback of their work. 10

12 Highlight the relevance of the topic being taught. Student perceptions to the relevance and importance of the topic are required to create interest and curiosity in the topic (Brady & Scully, 2005). Topics can be related to: Be able to answer questions such has: Why am I doing this? What s the point of this? Recent events, local and national. Student interests and skills. Future/planned events. Example 4. Too much talk, video 4. Give the students a choice on which activity or task they complete. As well as allowing students to select things that match their abilities and intelligences, a choice gives the student a sense of ownership and therefore commitment to it (Brady & Scully, 2005). Engage the students by reducing the amount of talking that you do and getting the students to express what they understand or have learnt so far about the topic (see example 4 video). John reduces is amount of talking by getting students to explain what they have learnt. He does this by getting them to imagine they are the item of discussion, in this case, molten rock. 2. School and classroom rules School and classroom rules promote equality, freedom and protection for everyone (Moss, 2013). In other words, providing a safe learning environment. This is one of Maslow s base levels (Figure 2) and essential if the students are to be comfortable at the higher levels. The classroom rules, needs to complement the school behaviour management policy to maintain uniformity and promote a safe school environment (Nicholson, 2013). 3. Positive re-enforcement Positive re-enforcement focuses on good behaviour and can be for something as simple as a student raising their hand to ask a question (as in Example 5 video). This positive feedback meets the student s needs, and can create a ripple effect throughout the class, where other students work to gain the same respect. 4. Use cues Example 5. Praise and preparation, video 5. Amy use praise to reenforce good behaviour in the students. Example 6. Attention seekers, video 6. Jane turns around a disruptive class, by changing her focus from the misbehaving students to praising the well behaved students. Re-enforce your expectations by using cues, such as Put your hand up if you can tell me. and When I say go you can pick up your pens and start writing. (Cowley, 2006). In the 11

13 above examples the teacher reminds the students that they have to put their hand up to ask questions, and they don t start their work until the teacher has finished explaining the task. 5. Wait for silence Do not start talking until the class is silent (Cowley, 2006). Failure to do this will mean that students will not be focused on you and also introduce a competition for the loudest voice. When seeking silence non-verbal cues are better. Be prepared to wait and even pause what you are saying should a student start talking while you are speaking. Amy does this really well in Example video 4, where she names students who are still talking and praises those that are quiet. Supportive Discipline Students will at times get distracted from the task at hand, which can easily become misbehaviour and a distraction for the rest of the class (Charles, 2002). Supportive discipline strategies can re-engage the student to the task at hand. Good supportive strategies should not disrupt the class, therefore must supportive strategies should be almost private between the student and teacher (Levin & Nolan, 2003). Strategies for supportive discipline Show interest in the student s work, backed up with praise and cheerful questions. Catch the students eyes and send private signals such as head shakes. Physical proximity (move closer to the student). Provide students with suggestions and hints when they get stuck. Provide a light challenge: Can you get five more questions completed before we finish? Restructure or change the activity if it is too difficult. Adapted from Charles (2002 p. 237) 12

14 Strategies and examples of supportive discipline 1. Planned ignoring Based on positive reinforcement, completely ignoring misbehaviour, not even looking around at the student can cause it to lesson and eventually disappear (Levin & Nolan, 2003). 2. Non-verbal interference Example 7. Girl talk, video 7. Nicola removes attention from two talkative girls, which leaves them little to do but get back on task. The teacher can send signals to an off task student through actions such as body language, proximity and eye contact (Levin & Nolan, 2003). A stern look toward an off task student and or standing close to the student is sometimes enough to get them back on task. 3. Show interest in the student s work A student who may be off task can be brought back on task by re-focusing on his work. Praise what the student has done so far and encourage/challenge them to do more (Levin & Nolan, 2003). 4. Redirect an off task students attention A student who is off task may be asked a question, or given something to do such as read this section to the class or solve this problem, to bring them back on task (Levin & Nolan, 2003). 5. Change class activity Sometimes the class activity may be too difficult or too easy and therefore not fit within the ZPD. This can lead to misbehaviour. Changing the activity to one that is more suitable may be required. Corrective Discipline Inevitably, students will at times break the rules. This is when corrective discipline strategies have to be applied. Corrective discipline should be handled sensitively and timely, allowing the student to return to proper behaviour without any ongoing bad feelings (Charles, 2002). 13

15 Strategies for corrective discipline Intervening in a positive manner when class rules are broken. Talk calmly and respectfully with offending students, without lecturing, threatening, impugning their dignity, or backing them into a corner. Invoke corrective measures previously agreed to by the class, such as applying consequences. Remain pleasant, retain composure, and refuse to argue. Show them that you want to help them abide by the class rules. Be consistent and apply the same actions in the same way every day. Example 8. Challenging children, video 8. How a school in London deals with difficult children. Adapted from Charles (2002 p. 237) Six step strategy for taking control The following six steps from Mackay (2013) provide a strategy for taking control and managing the situation. 1. Pause, stand back, take 5 Take a few seconds to consider possible responses (in severe cases this may mean seeking assistance from other staff). 2. Manage emotions Be in control of your emotions, don t let anger get in the way or you will lose control of the situation. Example 9. Dealing with difficult behaviour, video 9. A classroom reconstruction and panel discussion on dealing with a disruptive class 3. Focus on the behaviour Describe what you see, hear or what has happened. This will focus your response on the problem. E.g. why did you say that? 4. Get perspective Maintain the flow of the lesson and deal with the misbehaviour as swiftly and efficiently as possible. Don t get involved with the misbehaviour and become part of the entertainment. 14

16 5. Tune in What is really happening to cause the misbehaviour? Do you need to change something in the way you are teaching to regain the student(s) interest? 6. Ask Whose problem is it? If it is a class problem, the it is always the teacher s problem. If a student can change but chooses not to, then it is the teacher s problem. If the student seems unable to change their behaviour, it is their problem. The teacher should not try to resolve all the students problems. 15

17 Video examples Video 1: Physics The Cartesian diver Video 2: A lesson from the best Video 3: Love 'Em or Loathe 'Em, Video 4: Too much talk Video 5: Praise and preparation Video 6: Attention seekers Video 7: Girl talk Video 8: Challenging children Video 9: Dealing with difficult behaviour References Brady, L., & Scully, A. (2005). Engagement: Inclusive classroom management. Frenchs Forest, NSW: Pearson. Charles, C. M. (2002). Building Classroom Discipline (7th ed.). New Jersey: Pearson. Cowley, S. (2006). Getting the buggers to behave. New York: Continuum. 16

18 Eby, J., Herrell, A., & Jordan, M. (2006). Teaching in K 12 schools: A reflective action approach (4th ed.): Pearson. Hope, P. (2010). Multiple Intelligences: Theory and Application. Perspectives in Learning, 11(1), Killen, R. (2007). Effective teaching strategies: lessons from research and practice (4th ed.). Melbourne: Thomson. Krause, K. L., Bochner, S., & Duchesne, S. (2003). Educational psychology for learning and teaching. Melbourne: Thomson Learning. Levin, J., & Nolan, J. F. (2003). What every teacher should know about classroom management: Pearson Education. Mackay, J. (2013). Interactive student engagement and management. In R. Churchill, P. Ferguson, S. Godinho, N. Johnson, A. Keddie, W. Letts, J. Mackay, M. McGill, J. Moss, M. Nagel & M. Vick (Eds.), Teaching: Making a difference. Milton QLD: John Wiley and Sons. Matthews, R. (2013, 13/03/2013). [Student Teacher Interaction (Lecture 4: Adolescent Development)]. McInerney, D. M., & McInerney, V. (2002). Educational psychology constructing learning (3rd ed.). Frenchs Forest, NSW: Prentice Hall. Moran, S., Kornhaber, M., & Gardner, H. (2006). Orchestrating multiple intelligences. Educational Leadership, 64(1), Moss, J. (2013). Learner diversity, pedagogy and educational equity. In R. Churchill, P. Ferguson, S. Godinho, N. Johnson, A. Keddie, W. Letts, J. Mackay, M. McGill, J. Moss, M. Nagel, P. Nicholson & M. Vick (Eds.), Teaching: Making a difference (pp ). Milton, QLD: John Wiley and Sons. Nicholson, P. (2013). Organising the learning environment. In R. Churchill, P. Nicholson, P. Ferguson, S. Godinho, N. Johnson, A. Keddie, W. Letts, J. Mackay, M. McGill, J. Moss, M. Nagel & M. Vick (Eds.), Teaching: Making a difference (pp ). Milton QLD: John Wiley and Sons. Snowman, J., Dobozy, E., Scevak, J., Bryer, F., Bartlett, B. J., & Biehler. (2009). Psychology applied to teaching (1st Australian Edition ed.). Milton, QLD: John Wiley & Sons. Vick, M. (2013). Historical insights into teaching. In R. Churchill, P. Ferguson, S. Godinho, N. Johnson, A. Keddie, W. Letts, J. Mackay, M. McGill, J. Moss, M. Nagel, P. Nicholson & M. Vick (Eds.), Teaching: Making a difference (2nd ed., pp ). Milton, QLD: John Wiley & Sons. 17