Rural Appraisal Methods - Approaches

Transcription

1 Rural Appraisal Methods - Approaches 1 Informal Methods Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) Key Informants Group Interviews Case Studies Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) Formal Methods Formal Surveys Farm Record Keeping On-Farm Research Acknowledgements Informal Methods 1.1 Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) RRA is a systematic and semi-structured activity to collect information on rural livelihoods. If it is not systematic, it can become rural tourism. The process of RRA consists of a range of tools, including: Key informant interviews Group interviews Direct observations, etc. When techniques are used which use more visualization and allow more participation and management of the process by rural people, the process is usually referred to as Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA). Sometimes, RRA and PRA are considered synonymous, although there is a difference in terms of who controls the process and analysis: the information gathered in RRA is usually analysed and used by researchers, in PRA it should be by the rural people themselves. Basic characteristics of RRA: The problem is observed from different angles. Exploratory and iterative. Allows rapid learning by researchers. an interdisciplinary team approach. ICRA Learning Materials Rural Appraisal Methods Approaches - 1/7

2 Interviews are conducted by researchers (rather than enumerators). Respondents are selected purposefully, not at random. Centred on problems/opportunities. The context in which information is collected is as important as the data per se. Variability is something to be explored, rather than hidden by averages. 1.2 Key Informants A key informant is any individual who has relevant information and is willing to be interviewed. The interview is informal, in the sense that it does not employ a predetermined questionnaire, although it might well follow a predetermined theme. It is important to talk to people who represent the different interest groups and different perspectives of the theme being studied, to gain an overall view of the problem and to identify topics for more in-depth research. Key informant interviews are essential for almost any type of study with a social dimension. They are useful in the early stages of research when the researchers are still trying to gain an overall view of the problem area. Nevertheless, different informants can be useful at almost any point in the ARD process: description, explanation and verification. Simple to organize and arrange (although it should be prepared). Allows the exploration of different viewpoints. Flexible, allows rapid reorganization during the process, following up new threads of interest. Subject to all sorts of bias. Danger of accepting information at face value ( anecdotal evidence ), without confirming it by other informants or sources. Although the interview should be informal, it is necessary to establish the objectives beforehand and prepare the interview so as not to loose sight of the information required. ICRA Learning Materials Rural Appraisal Methods Approaches - 2/7

3 1.3 Group Interviews Interviewing groups of people can take different forms: Communal meetings, where a general perspective is sought about the community or area. Normally, involves whoever turns up to the meeting. Focus groups, where a smaller group (6-10) of people is selected for their specialized knowledge or perspective on an issue. Community meetings are especially useful in the exploratory phases of a study. Focus groups are useful in the explication and verification phases of the ARD process. Community meetings are useful for getting the collective wisdom or knowledge of a community. Allow a lot of information to be collected in a short time. Information can be confirmed or questioned rapidly. Differences of opinion can be investigated quickly. People are often less inhibited in groups. Group dynamics allow people to respond to the comments of others and promote group discussion, social learning. Requires facilitation skills to conduct meetings well. Subject to domination by authorities present, vocal individuals, or those that represent a dominant social group (although the revealing of such unequal relationships - in terms of power - can be regarded as an important outcome). Community meetings can require a social protocol and time to organize. Also subject to bias (only those with time attend, close to the site, often male, etc). 1.4 Case Studies Consist in a more in-depth study of a small number of sampled units, selected as representative of the population. Because of the intensity of data collection from each case, it is not usually possible or desirable to make statistical inferences to the population. ICRA Learning Materials Rural Appraisal Methods Approaches - 3/7

4 Are appropriate where a detailed understanding of complex beliefs, behaviours or relationships is considered more important than a statistical extrapolation of the data collected. In some circumstances where the information is not structured, is subjective or sensitive, case studies can be the only alternative. 1.5 Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) The evolution of RRA towards greater participation not just consultation led to the new term PRA being used. PRA mainly consists in a process whereby rural people create and manipulate their own information in a visualised format, using familiar materials to hand. There has been an explosion of interest, trying out of different methods and techniques and tools available for PRA. Tools for PRA include maps, transects, models, calendars, Venn ( chapatti ) diagrams, preference matrices, and many others. Nevertheless, it is not the use of these tools themselves that make appraisal participatory, but how they are used. PRA can be used in all phases of rural appraisal and research planning. For reasons of efficiency and project sustainability, political imperatives for participation, donors are increasingly insisting that participatory methods be used in project planning. The strength of PRA is that it can empower local people to take decisions and responsibility for planning development and research activities, which should lead to greater community involvement and sustainability of research/development activities. There are a number of difficulties with PRA: Many PRA practitioners assume that communities are homogeneous, and overlook the social differences and vested interests which can lead to interventions benefiting only a few. The skills needed to facilitate PRA and empowerment are not found in all researchers. PRA requires a new type of professionalism. PRA is intensive, and is focussed at the community level. When trying to cover a region, there can be problems of scaling up (i.e. assuming that a community is representative of the wider region ). There can also be ethical problems of generating expectations in a particular community if the resulting actions will be more widely diffused throughout a region. Particularly with research institutions, there is still resistance to allowing farmers to determine the research agenda, and giving professional recognition to research activities and results that do not follow a formal ( scientific ) protocol. ICRA Learning Materials Rural Appraisal Methods Approaches - 4/7

5 2 Formal Methods 2.1 Formal Surveys Formal surveys consist in data collection through probabilistic sampling so that the sample represents a larger population to a known degree of precision, through use of a standard questionnaire. Usually, the use of trained enumerators is required to carry out the survey, interview the respondents, and fill in the questionnaires. The surveys can differ in the frequency of data collection: Single visit Multiple or repeated visits When statistical inference is required to characterize or compare populations. For example: To verify a hypothesis, when this verification requires quantitative comparisons. To establish a baseline of production levels, for the purpose of subsequent comparisons and project evaluation, etc. To establish costs of production, etc. for an analysis of competitiveness. To establish or verify a classification or typology of farmers/households (informal methods can also be used, here). Provides quantitative data that can be used for statistical inference. The use of random sampling reduces the possibility of bias in the selection of respondents. Can be seen as more scientific or reliable by policy/decision makers. The sample has to be sufficiently large to make statistically valid conclusions. Inflexible, difficult to reorient at short notice or during the study according to preliminary results. Costly in time and human resources (preparation, implementation, processing and analysis especially multiple visit surveys). The use of enumerators reduces communication between rural people and researchers, preventing learning. ICRA Learning Materials Rural Appraisal Methods Approaches - 5/7

6 2.2 Farm Record Keeping Farm record keeping is similar to multiple visit surveys, except that in this case the same farmers or a family member keeps the records instead of these being recorded by an enumerator. Appropriate where there are frequent inputs/outputs that need to be quantified (e.g. milk, vegetable sales). Where there is a family member who can read/write and is willing to keep the records, this method is a good alternative to repeated visit surveys.. Permits frequent recording (e.g. daily). Permits data collection with less effort by researchers The farmer is more involved with the process; therefore the results tend to be more reliable. It is necessary to balance the data needs for research with the data the farmer finds interesting or is willing to record. It is also necessary to carefully design the recording format or book, and visit regularly to maintain the farmer s interest and accuracy of data being collected. 2.3 On-Farm Research On farm experiments vary in terms of farmer participation: They can be simply an extension or replication of experiments on research stations, where the researchers determine all the management parameters and the variables to be measured, or They can involve farmers in determining how to manage the crop/livestock, what variables to measure, and the experimental design. To evaluate or quantify new practices or technological options under the agro-ecological or socioeconomic conditions of farmers. To verify practices that have been developed on experiment stations or research farms, or in other areas. To demonstrate new options to farmers. ICRA Learning Materials Rural Appraisal Methods Approaches - 6/7

7 Useful to evaluate technology in a new area. Can strengthen the capacity of farmers to experiment, evaluate and develop their own technology. The contact between researchers and farmers can strengthen communication between them. Cost and logistical considerations often limit the selection of farms to a number that is insufficient to sample the variation that exists in the mandate area or recommendation domain. The variation in soils, farmer management in farmers fields implies a larger variability (experimental error) in production levels and hence a greater number of replications for statistical inference than would be used in a research station. 3 Acknowledgements This learning resource was prepared for ICRA ( by Richard Hawkins. It forms part of the ICRA learning resources, written for use in capacity building in Agricultural Research for Development. You are welcome to use these materials for non-profit purposes; we only ask you to send us a short at Secretariat.ICRA@wur.nl, or leave a comment on our webpage telling us how you have used them and how you think they could be improved Thank you! ICRA Learning Materials Rural Appraisal Methods Approaches - 7/7