A guide for writing lab reports

Transcription

1 A guide for writing lab reports Writing a good lab report is not an easy task. Following this format should make writing your report much easier, as it helps you organize the material you wish to present. As students, it is important for you to develop good writing skills. The format of a scientific paper reflects the scientific method. Lab reports are almost always organized as follows: Title Abstract Introduction Materials and Methods Results Discussion Literature Cited BASIC FORMATTING GUIDELINES Lab reports are written in paragraph form. Lab reports should be neatly typed. (in some instances writing will be permitted). Only black ink should be used (except in figures). Reports should be double-spaced, on one side of the paper only. Margins should be one inch on all sides. Use standard 8.5 x 11 inch plain or lined white paper for report, graph paper for figures. Staple reports in upper left-hand corner.

2 SECTION GUIDELINES With the exception of the title page and abstract, do NOT start each section on a new page. The title of the report should clearly reflect the subject you are studying. It should contain the fewest number of words that adequately describes the paper s content (usually no more than ten words). For example, The Effects of Several Colors of Light on Photosynthesis in Chorella is more descriptive than Light and Photosynthesis. Capitalize key words of the title. The title should be centered and presented on the title page. In addition to the title, include your name, partners names listed in alphabetical order by last name, the date, your instructor s name, the course name and class period.

3 The abstract is perhaps the most difficult section of the report to write. You should write the abstract only after you have completed all other sections. In this section, the entire report is reviewed in condensed form (usually one Paragraph). Abstracts rarely exceed 250 words. Try to summarize each of the other sections of the report into one or two sentences. Include a brief description of the pertinent background information, the objectives of the study, the methods used, the results obtained and the interpretation of the results. Specific results should be presented. Do not hesitate to give the punchline." The purpose of the abstract is to provide the reader with the gist of the report so that the reader can decide whether or not the report is relevant enough to be read. The abstract must be complete and self contained and should NOT contain references to tables, figures, or to literature cited. Present the abstract on a separate page, after the title page but before the introduction.

4 Beginning with the introduction, each section of the body of the report should include a section heading. From the introduction onwards, DO NOT start each section on a separate page. Introduction: The introduction section should introduce the topic of your experiment and provide background information. Include a statement of purpose. Discuss any topics required by the teacher. Also, this section often introduces theory and terminology used in the paper. The information in this section provides a foundation for the caparison of your results in the discussion section at the end of your report. Lastly, the introduction must include the specific hypothesis that you tested. (NOTE: try to avoid first person references, such as, I and my in your hypothesis). For example, It was expected that dissolved oxygen concentration will increase as percent light intensity increases. Materials and Methods: The material and methods section reports how, when, where and what you did. The procedures and equipment used in your lab should be described in this section. Your description should be detailed enough so that someone unfamiliar with the procedures could repeat your experiment. Always write in past tense. (e.g., The test tubes were filed with solution and shaken for 30 seconds.). Be careful that you do not write this section in numbered cookbook style. Results: The results section includes a brief paragraph describing the data. In the results section, you must report your findings. Keep it simple and to the point. In this section, make reference to data, figures, tables, etc. Do not try to explain the results in this section. You will generally be told by your instructor how to analyze and present your results. Large amounts of numerical data are generally present in tables. However, more typically you will be asked to summarize your finings and analyses in graphs. All tables and figures must be referred to at least once in the text of the report. For example, Density was estimated using the slope of the graph of mass vs. volume (Figure 1) or Figure 2 is a Polaroid photograph of a electrophoresis gel. Most references to tables and figure appear first in the results section.

5 Guidelines for Tables and Figures 1. A table is a list of words or numbers. A figure is any graph, drawing, diagram, or photograph. 2. Tables and figures are numbered (e.g., Table 1; Fig. 2). Abbreviate the word Figure as Fig. except at the beginning of a sentence. Capitalize the words Table and Figure. 3. All tables and figures must have complete titles tat can stand alone and completely explain the contents. The table number and tile should go above the table. The figure number an title should go below the figure. Always number tables and figures in the order in which they are mentioned in the paper. 4. Never present the same date in more than one format. (e.g., both a table and a figure with same info.) Figures are usually preferred. 5. If graphs re plotted in a figure, the independent variable (the variable that you established and controlled during experiment) is presented on the x axis of the graph. Time and temperature are often independent variables. 6. The dependent variable varies in response to changes in the independent variable. Dependent variables are present on the y axis of the graph. 7. Always label axes and indicate units of measurement. Abbreviate or use standard symbols for all units (e.g., degrees Celsius = C, minutes = min, etc.) Put the abbreviation or symbols in parentheses when used in figures or tables. Use the correct symbols. Also use subscribes and superscripts if and when necessary. 8. The numbers on the axes should increase in regular increments from left to right and form bottom to top. Include leading zeros (e.g., 0.05 not.05) 9. If necessary, provide a key to the lines and symbols in a figure. 10. If you prepare your graphs with a computer, you are still required to meet the above format requirements. If on paper, graphs should be on graph paper. 11. Number and arrange tables in the order in which they are mentioned in the paper. 12. Generally, it is better to place tables and figures on separate pages.

6 Discussion: Use your discussion section to explain your results and answer any questions required by your teacher. Discuss if your results support or refute your hypothesis. Discuss whether or not the results are as expected. If not, why aren t they? Also discuss any sources of error involved in collecting or evaluating your data. (Do not waste a lot of space blame equipment or the guy sitting next to you, use scientific and design sources error). Improvements to your experimental design may be suggested. Also, you should state any new hypothesis that may have resulted from your work. In this section, you should demonstrate that you have thought about your results and understand their significance. Use your discussion section to answer the questions So what? and What does this mean. Literature Cited All literary sources from which you obtained information must be acknowledged in the text of your report. Literature can be cited in either of the following two ways. (1) According to Campbell and Reece (2008, proteins are composed of amino acids. (2) Proteins are composed of amino acids (Campbell and Reece, 2008). All literary sources that you have cited in the text of your report must be listed alphabetically, by author, in the literature cited section. Example: Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece Biology, 8 th ed. Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Co., New York. CITATIONS (APA FORMAT) When you use a literature source in your research you must acknowledge that source. Students carrying out science research in AP Biology are expected to use the APA (American Psychological Association) format. You can use this style guide to help you format a proper citation for a specific type of source. You can also use a Web citation engine that will help you format your citation by going to Citation Machine. The link below will take you to the APA Format within Citation Machine. Just choose the type of source you are using from the lefthand menu (book, journal, magazine, online source, etc.) and then type in your information. Color Key Follow these color codes: Author(s) Date Title of Book Title of Article Title of Periodical Volume Pages Place of Publication Publisher Other Information

7 Journal or Magazine Article (use for journals that start each issue with page one) Wilcox, R. V. (1991). Shifting roles and synthetic women in Star Trek: The Next Generation. Studies in Popular Culture, 13(2), Journal or Magazine Article (use for journals where the page numbering continues from issue to issue) Dubeck, L. (1990). Science Fiction Aids Science Teaching. Physics Teacher, 28, Newspaper Article DiRado, A. (1995, March 15). Trekking through college: Classes explore modern society using the world of Star Trek. Los Angeles Times, p. A3. Article from an Internet Database Mershon, D. H. (1998, November-December). Star Trek on the Brain: Alien Minds, Human Minds. American Scientist, 86, 585. Retrieved July 29, 1999, from Expanded Academic ASAP database. Book Okuda, M., & Okuda, D. (1993). Star Trek Chronology: The History of the Future. New York, NY: Pocket Books. Book Article or Chapter James, N. E. (1988). Two Sides of Paradise: The Eden Myth According to Kirk and Spock. In D. Palumbo (Ed.), Spectrum of the Fantastic (pp ). Westport, CT: Greenwood. Encyclopedia Article Sturgeon, T. (1995). Science fiction. In The Encyclopedia Americana (Vol. 24, pp ). Danbury, CT: Grolier. ERIC Document Fuss-Reineck, M. (1993). Sibling Communication in Star Trek: The Next Generation. Journal of the Speech Communication Association. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED ). Website Lynch, T. (1996). DS9 trials and tribble-ations review. Retrieved October 8, 1997, from Psi Phi: Bradley's Science Fiction Club Web site:

8 GENERAL WRITING SUGGESTIONS: Even though you will often work in groups in lab and may share data as a class, LAB REPORTS SHOULD BE WRITTEN BY YOU ONLY! Write your laboratory report as if you did all the work yourself even if the instructor or other students did parts of it. Proofread your report. Be careful of your spelling and grammar. Laboratory reports should be written concisely and to the point. Redundancy and roundabout sentence construction should be avoided. Laboratory reports should be written in the past tense, except when making general statements. (e.g., Proteins are composed of amino acids.). In general, you should write in the third person (e.g., three solutions were prepared.). Some professors accept first person, but third person is standard. Numerals, rather than written-out numbers, should be used with units of measure, except when they begin a sentence. In the body of your report, numbers from one to nine should be written out; numbers above nine should be written as numerals. Abbreviated units of measure should be used at all times in laboratory reports, (ml, mg, mm, km, sec, min, hr). The word data is a plural noun; the singular form is datum. Data always takes a plural verb (e.g., The data were analyzed.). When using the scientific name of a species, use italics. Capitalize the genus name but use lower case for the species. For example, the fruit fly is Drosophila melanogaster. Once you have used the full scientific name in the body of your paper you may abbreviate using genus first initial, then species name. For example, D. melanogaster.

9 WHAT NOT TO DO: Please do not use the word(s) prove, proves, proved, proven A laboratory experiment may demonstrate a scientific principle but it doesn t prove it! One lab, performed by one student, doesn t prove as scientific theory. Words like, suggests, demonstrates, or supports the hypothesis are appropriate alternatives. Please do not say your sources of error are due to human error. Yes you may make errors, but you must be specific about the sources of error and how they affect your data. Please do not offer your opinion. For example, This experiment was a lot of fun! Please do not use colloquial language (every day speech). It s wonderful if your lab worked out really great, but that is first of all an opinion, and secondly colloquial language. Please do not use exclamation points and question marks. Please do not use an engaging question to begin your report. Please do not refer to your report or experiment as your lab. A lab is where you perform the experiment.

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