Associative Recognition Memory and Context Effects Using Objects on Natural Backgrounds

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1 Seon Hall Universiy Seon Hall Seon Hall Universiy Disseraions and Theses (ETDs) Seon Hall Universiy Disseraions and Theses Spring Associaive Recogniion Memory and Conex Eecs Using Objecs on Naural Backgrounds Chi Thao Ngo Seon Hall Universiy Follow his and addiional works a: hp://scholarship.shu.edu/disseraions Par o he Psychology Commons Recommended Ciaion Ngo, Chi Thao, "Associaive Recogniion Memory and Conex Eecs Using Objecs on Naural Backgrounds" (2013). Seon Hall Universiy Disseraions and Theses (ETDs) hp://scholarship.shu.edu/disseraions/1860

2 Associaive Recogniion Memory and Conex Eecs using Objecs on Naural Backgrounds by Chi ThaoNgo A hesis submied in parial ulillmen ohe requiremens or he degree o Maser oscience in Experimenal Psychology wih a concenraion in Behavioral Neuroscience Seon Hall Universiy April, 2013

3 Approved By: Marianne Lloyd, Ph.D., Facul Janine Buckner, Ph.D., Direcor o Graduae Sudies 11

4 Table oconens Approved By...ii Absrac...v nroducion...1 Experimen Mehod...20 Paricipan...20 Maerial and Apparaus...21 Procedures...21 Resuls...24 Discussion...30 Experimen Mehod...34 Paricipan...34 Maerial and Apparaus...'...14 Procedures...:...35 Resuls...36 Discussion...42 General Discussion...45 Reerences...55 iii

5 Lis ofigures Figure Figure Figure 3...'"...28 Figure Figure V r!!! \

6 Lis otables Table Table Table Table v i

7 Absrac Associaive recogniion memory and conex eecs are wo lines o research ha exis in parallel wih lile cross alk. Associaive recogniion asks ask paricipans o disinguish he sudied associaions owo or more iems rom novel or rearranged associaions (e.g., Cohn & Moscovich, 2007; Craik & Schloerscheid, 2011), whereas conex eec sudies have shown ha he recogniion oan individual objec is enhanced when presened in is original conex (e.g., Hollingworh, 2006; Hayes, Nadel, & Ryan, 2007). Our sudy invesigaed wheher amiliariy or recollecion suppors boh associaive recogniion and conex eecs hrough he use oa speeded recogniion es. n wo experimens, a response deadline did no change he size ohe conex eec or reduce discriminaion oold and rearranged iems, indicaing ha boh asks migh rely on amiliariy. This occurred boh when paricipans had o engage in associaive recogniion as i is radiionally sudied (discriminaing old and rearranged pairings) and when he ask asked o discriminae amiliar and novel objecs and backgrounds. n boh sudies, a reliable conex eec was observed. The resuls sugges ha conex eecs or objec recogniion rely on amiliariy, which indicaes ha objec and background migh be encoded as one coheren represenaion, no as individual eniies (Hayes, Nadel, & Ryan, 2007; Levy, Rabinyan, &Vakil, 2008). V1

8 nroducion The abiliy o orm and rerieve associaive inormaion beween wo or more iems is undamenal in he consrucion ocomplex memory represenaions. For example, we associae people's aces and heir names aer our irs ime meeing hem, in order o address hem correcly in subsequen encouners. One ohe ways o assess he abiliy o rerieve a previously encounered associaion is by esing associaive recogniion memory. Associaive recogniion memory is deined as disinguishing he sudied associaion owo or more iems rom novel associaions. This ask requires remembering he speciic pairing owo iems (associaive memory) in addiion o remembering he individual iems (iem memory). n he previous example, we need o remember he person's ace and he name individually (iem memory) in addiion o remembering he associaion beween he wo (associaive memory). These associaions are esablished by memory binding, a process in which muliple iems become bound o one anoher a encoding (Cohen & Eichenbaum, 1997). Memory binding provides a mechanism ha allows or he relaions among dieren simuli o be encoded. Binding an iem o is conexual deails improves he abiliy o rerieve accurae memory sources o laer use in rerieval. mpairmen in memory binding leads o disurbances in episodic memory, indicaing ha his process is he oundaion or he developmen oepisodic memory. Thus, successul associaive recogniion memory oen relies on memory binding a encoding (Sluzenski, Newcombe, & Kovacs, 2006). According o Newcombe, Lloyd, & Balcomb (2011), here are wo disinc ypes! obinding ha suppor episodic memory: inraobjec and inerobjec binding. nraobjec 1

9 reers o he associaion ovarious eaures oan objec such as shape and color; whereas inerobjec binding reers o he associaion beween an objec and is conex such as an environmenal seing or a surrounding background. Ecker, Zimmer, and Groh-Bordin (2007) suggesed ha inerobjec binding (Le., objec-conex binding) migh be more relevan o episodic memory, and hereore, will be he ocus o he curren research. Previous research has indicaed ha binding does no only ulill he demand or remembering he associaive inormaion, bu also aciliaes memory or individual iems (e.g., Craik & Schloerscheid, 2011; Hayes e a., 2007). The role obinding in iem memory is eviden in he phenomenon reerred o as he conex eec. The conex eec is deined as an increase in memory perormance or iems ha are esed in heir original conexs compared o hose esed in dieren conexs (Humphreys, 1976; or a review, see Smih & Vela, 2001). Among early research in conex eecs are sudies conduced r by Ligh and Carer-Sobell (1970). They examined he conex eec by comparing word recogniion when a word was esed in is original conex (he same conex as sudy! phase) o when i is presened in a new conex, or in no conex a all. For example, he word "jam" was paired wih "srawberry" a sudy phase. A es, he paricipans were asked o recognize he word "jam" when presened in is original conex "srawberry jam," in anoher conex "raic jam" (Experimen 1), or by isel (Experimen 2). Their indings demonsraed ha word recogniion was highes when presened wih is sudied paired word, ollowed by new conex iems (e.g., ''raic-jam''), ollowed by single word iems. The inding osuperior recogniion or words esed on he sudied conex presumably relecs a binding mechanism ha occurred during encoding. 2 \

10 More recenly, Markopolous and colleagues (2010) sudied he conex eec using word-background associaions. A sudy, a lis owords was presened on various background colors. A es, he words were presened eiher on he same background as sudied, or on a dieren background. n his sudy, he conex was deined as he background colors. The resuls indicaed a conex eec in word recogniion - he peronnance was highes or iems ha were esed on he same background in which hey were sudied. These indings indicaed ha he reinsaemen ohe sudied background aciliaed word recogniion a es, hus implying ha word and background migh have been bound ogeher a encoding. Alhough here is a large body oresearch supporing he idea oha conex aciliaes word recogniion (e.g., Craik & Schloerscheid, 2011; Humphreys, 1976; Ligh & Carer-Sobell, 1980), ewer sudies have examined he conex eec in objec recogniion (e.g., Craik & Schloerscheid, 2011; Hayes e a, 2007; Levy, Rabinyan, &Vakil, 2008; Nakashima & Yokosawa, 2011). For research in conex eecs using objec-background associaion, he enns "conex" and "background" are used inerchangeably, boh reerring o he background surrounding he objecs. Mos ohe sudies on conex eecs using objec-background associaion employ a paradigm in which he conex manipulaion is based on he consancy or change ohe background a sudy and a es. Perormance in objec recogniion is compared beween he old pairing iems (i.e., objec esed on he same background as sudy), rearranged iems (Le., objec esed on anoher sudied background ha was no paired ogeher wih he objec a sudy), new-background iems (i.e., objec esed on a novel background), and no background iems (i.e., objec esed on a whie background) (see Figure 1). 3

11 A Sudy Aes Old Rearranged New-background punoj3'l:luq on Figure 1. These simuli are examples o a paradigm or sudying associaive recogniion and conex eecs using objecs and naural backgrounds. Hayes e al. (2007) examined he conex eecs using images oobjecs embedded in naural scenes (e.g. a eapo on a wooden able) using a paradigm similar o ha ofigure 1. The goal oheir sudy was o compare objec recogniion beween iems, ha were esed on he same background and hose esed on a dieren background. There were our ypes oes iems: wo "same conex" condiions and wo "shied conex" condiions. The "same conex" condiions consised ohe "Scene. Scene" iems (he objecs were sudied on a naural background and esed on he same background) and he "Objec.Objec" condiion (he objecs were sudied on a whie background and esed on a whie background). The "shied conex" condiions consised ohe "Scene. Objec" iems (objec were sudied on a naural background and esed on a whie background) and he "Objec.Scene" iems (objecs were sudied on a whie background 4

12 and esed on a naural background). Their indings demonsraed conex eecs; ha is, objec recogniion perormance was signiicanly higher or he "same conex" condiions compared o he "shied conex" condiions. The resuls ohis and oher sudies on conex eecs using nauralisic objec-background associaion as simuli have demonsraed a increase recogniion perormance by as much as 15% in he old pairing iems compared o new pairing iems. A heoreically relevan quesion regarding he naure oassociaive memory is wheher memory binding is an auomaic or eorul process. n oher words, does he binding beween an iem and is background occur explicily? This quesion has been addressed in sudies ha manipulae dieren encoding insrucion. Hayes e al. (2009) sudied conex eecs using ace-background associaions. n his sudy, paricipans were insruced o rae riendliness oace images. Face images were embedded on eiher unique backgrounds (e.g., in ron oa building, in a resauran) or black backgrounds. The resuls showed ha aces were beer recognized when esed on he same background in which hey were sudied. Alhough he encoding insrucion only demanded he processing oaces, conex eecs or ace recogniion implied ha he ace-background associaion occurred auomaically. Similar o his inding, Hayes e a. (2007) sudied he auomaiciy oobjec-background binding by manipulaing he encoding insrucions. For he "incidenal" condiion, paricipans were insruced o judge he price ohe objecs: "Does his objec cos more han $25?" n he "inenional" condiion, paricipans were old o remember he objecs or a laer memory es. Conex eecs were observed in boh condiions. mporanly, he sizes ohe conex eecs were similar or boh groups, relecing ha objec-background binding migh occur J r, i ; 5 \

13 auomaically. Hayes and colleagues (2009) speculaed ha auomaiciy in memory binding migh occur because we canno always predic how useul or imporan cerain inormaion migh become in he uure. Oher mehods have been employed o examine wheher binding is always an explici and conscious process. n Levy, Rabinyan, and Vakil's (2008) sudy, objecs and conex picures (Le., a picure o a scene background) were presened simulaneously side by side on a screen. A es, paricipans were asked o recognize he objecs and he speciic posiion ohe conex picures. The resuls showed ha he presence ohe conex picures aciliaed recogniion or he objecs; however, explici inormaion regarding he conex picure (Le., he sudied posiion) was no remembered. Thus, conex eecs occurred even when he conexual inormaion is no direcly recognized, suggesing ha conex eecs migh no require explici memory or conexual inormaion. On he oher hand, Nakashima and Y okosawa (2011) have argued ha objecbackground binding requires explici encoding insrucions. nheir sudy, paricipans viewed rich background scenes, each consised o ieen objecs. The resuls revealed ha objec-background binding only occurred or asks in which he conexual inormaion was required (e.g., inenional memory ask), bu no or hose in which conexual inormaion was no required (e.g., objec change deecion ask). Based on his inding, he auhors suggesed ha objec-background binding does no always occur auomaically. 6

14 \ [ The lieraure suggess he involvemen owo associaive mechanisms underlying he conex eec: (1) he objec and background are used ino a single represenaion, and (2) he represenaions oobjec and background are arbirarily associaed (Hayes e al., 2007). This heoreical perspecive is buil upon he dual processing heory by Mandler (1980) - a dominan heory ha has been suppored by many dieren lines oresearch in recogniion memory (or a review, see Y onelinas, 2002). According o his heory, recogniion memory relies on wo processes: amiliariy and recollecion. Familiariy reers o a subjecive eeling ohaving encounered an iem beore wihou rerieval o any speciic deails abou he encoding episode. Recollecion reers o he abiliy o rerieve speciic deails associaed wih he experience during encoding. Recollecion-based rerieval is hereore an eorul process, which akes! longer han amiliariy. For example, i akes a brie momen o recognize a amiliar eapo; however, i requenly akes a longer o recollec when and where he eapo was previously encounered in he pas (e.g. he eapo was on op oa wooden able and nex o a lamp). n his example, he iniial recogniion relies on amiliariy and he rerieval o conex relies on recollecion. A large body o research, using he dual-process models, has suggesed ha iem recogniion is suppored by amiliariy, whereas associaive recogniion relies on recollecion (e.g., Hockley & Consoli, 1999; Roello & Hei, 2000; Yonelinas, 1997,2002). Alhough researchers have considered associaive recogniion o be suppored recollecion (Speer & Curran, 2007; or review, see Y onelinas, 2002), some sudies have shown ha amiliariy can suppor associaive recogniion in evens where wo iems are "uniized" a encoding (Hayes-Roh, 1977; Kelly & Wixed, 2001). Uniizaion is deined 7

15 , 8 as a process in which wo or more iems are "used" ogeher and encoded as one coheren represenaion (Ora & Schacer, 1989). Yonelinas e al. (1999) demonsraed evidence or he role oamiliariy in uniized associaion in sudies examining discriminaion abiliies or sudied aces and rearranged aces (Le., rearranged eaures o hair, eyes, nose). This inding suggesed ha he associaion o eyes, nose and mouh are encoded as one single represenaion (ace). Oher sudies using word pairs have employed encoding manipulaion o induce uniizaion a encoding (e.g., Quamme, Yonelinas & Norman, 2007) and demonsraed ha a uniized associaion could be suppored by amiliariy. The noion ouniizaion is imporan in his lieraure oconex eecs. As Hayes e al. (2007) menioned, objecs and backgrounds migh be inegraed and encoded as a single represenaion (i.e., uniizaion), or encoded individually and linked ogeher hrough an arbirary associaion (i.e., binding). he objec and he background are, in ac, uniized during encoding, hen recogniion or objec-background associaion can be i i,.. suppored by amiliariy. There is discrepancy in previous sudies examining wheher amiliariy or recollecion suppors he conex eec. The sudies by Hayes e al. (2007) using an encoding insrucion manipulaion demonsraed auomaiciy ohe objec-background binding, which implies ha his process migh rely on amiliariy. This argumen is especially suppored by wo main indings. n all experimens, he paricipans were old o pay aenion o he objecs only. A reliable conex eec observed across all experimens showed ha he binding oobjec and background migh have occurred even when he associaive inormaion is no demanded a encoding or a rerieval. Secondly,

16 in Experimen 2, he "objec.objec" iems (objecs were sudied on a whie background and esed on a whie background) also yielded higher recogniion compared o he shied background condiions. This inding showed ha objec-background binding occurs regardless owheher he background is rich or sparse. Alhough Hayes and colleagues (2007) did no explore he implicaions ohis inding in a ramework odualprocess heory, his resul indirecly addresses he quesion owheher recollecion or amiliariy suppors conex eec in objec recogniion. The observed conex eecs suggesed ha he correc recogniion or he "objec.objec" iems is suppored by amiliariy. A sudy, all objecs were sudied on a whie background; hereore, he rerieval ohe objecs may no rely on recollecion due o absence oconexual inormaion ohe background o be recolleced o suppor recogniion. This inding provided evidence ha recollecion ailed o accoun or changes in levels o correc objec recogniion. The conex eecs in objec recogniion migh have primarily worked via he assessmen ohe objecs' amiliariy. n addiion o behavioral indings, many sudies have invesigaed he neural correlaes or memory binding and conex eecs in associaive recogniion memory. is well esablished ha he Medial Temporal Lobes (MTL) subregions are imporan or memory binding. Dieren subregions migh mediae dieren aspecs oa visual simulus (Ranganah, 2010). The perirhinal corex (PRc) is associaed wih processing speciic inormaion abou objecs' physical properies. The parahippcampal corex (PHc) is associaed wih processing he conexual inormaion such as ''when'' and ''where'' componens ohe visual experience (e.g. Davachi, 2006; Hayes e al., 2007, 2009; Howard e a., 2011). The oupus ohe PRc and he PHc are received by he enorhinal 9 \

17 10 i corex and subsequenly become inegraed in he hippocampus (or review, see Eichenbaum, Yonelinas & Ranganah, 2007). Researchers have also explored he neural correlaes ohe conex eecs. Hayes e al. (2009) aimed o ideniy he brain regions associaed wih viewing aces when conexual inonnaion was presen a encoding, as well as a successul subsequen rerieval, using MRl A sudy, paricipans were presened wih a series ace images embedded eiher on naural backgrounds (FS-F) or on black backgrounds (F-F). Paricipans were insruced o rae he levels oriendliness ohe person in he picure. A es, paricipans were asked o discriminae aces on black backgrounds as "old" or ''new.'' There were hree main indings. Firs, here was a higher acivaion in he hippocampus or successul recogniion rials (hi> miss) or he FS-F compared o he F-F condiions. This indicaed ha binding beween ace and background was mediaed by he hippocampus. Second, here was greaer PHc acivaion in he FS-F han in he F-F condiion, indicaing reacivaion ohe background a es. Similar indings were repored in Experimen 4 ohayes e al. (2007), which demonsraed ha PHc may be responsible or reinsaemen he original conex when being objecs were esed on he "conex shi" condiions. These resuls are consisen wih previous research suggesing ha he PHc mediaes scene processing (Epsein & Kanwisher, 1998). Third, here was a hemispheric asymmery in medial emporal lobe acivaion a encoding, wih he le PHc acivaion correlaed wih smaller conex eecs, whereas he righ correlaed wih larger conex eecs. i J ( Oher sudies in recogniion memory have also examined he neural correlaes or amiliariy- and recollecion-based memory responses. Findings rom previous research

18 have shown ha he acivaion in he PRc is associaed wih amiliariy, whereas hose in he hippocampus and he PHc are associaed wih recollecion (e.g., Kirwan & Sark, 2004; Ranganah, 2004). n cases in which uniizaion occurs, Haskins and colleagues (2008) ound ha word pair uniizaion is correlaed wih PRc's acivaion during sudy and es. This mding is consisen wih resuls rom sudies showing ha damage in he hippocampus does no impair uniized associaions (Ranganah, 2010). Despie heir common underlying process omemory binding, associaive memory and conex eecs have been invesigaed ogeher in one paradigm by only a ew sudies. Cohn and Moscovich (2007) sudied associaive recogniion and conex eecs by comparing wo dieren ask demands a rerieval: associaive ideniicaion and associaive reinsaemen asks. n heir experimens, he paricipans sudied a lis o unrelaed word pairs (e.g., shir-chair; book-jar). A es, he associaive ideniicaion ask requires he paricipan o disinguish he old pairing (e.g., shir-chair) rom novel pairings (rearranged pair: shir-jar and hal-iems: shir-bee). Associaive ideniicaion is an associaive recogniion ask ha requires explici rerieval ohe associaion beween wo words in addiion o remembering he individual words. The rearranged pairs (e.g., shir-jar) are made up o boh old iems, bu he associaion is novel. Based on he dualprocess heory, he abiliy o recognize old associaion requires recollecion, whereas he abiliy o recognize an old iem only requires amiliariy. Thereore, in his ask, paricipans have o rely on recollecion o recognize he old pairs and correcly rejec he rearranged pairs., n he associaive reinsaemen ask, paricipans were asked o recognize wheher boh words are old, regardless oheir previous pairing. The rerieval ohe associaive 11

19 i 1 inonnaion is no required in his ask because he correc "old" responses would also apply in boh he old and he rearranged pairs. The auhors noed ha his ask is essenially an iem recogniion ask because he rerieval ohe associaion is no required. Peronnance on he associaive reinsaemen ask, however, demonsraes he conex eecs in iem recogniion. Tha is, he paired counerpar iem is presen in he old pairs, bu no in he rearranged pairs. Thus, higher recogniion or old pairs compared o rearranged pairs would indicae ha he reinsaemen ohe paired iems aciliaes word recogniion, regardless o wheher he rerieval ohe associaion is demanded. n oher words, higher recogniion or old pairs compared o rearranged pairs in he associaive reinsaemen ask would indicae conex eecs in word recogniion. Cohn and Moscovich (2007) aimed o beer undersand he binding process o word pairs a he rerieval level. They used he response deadline mehod, which requires he paricipans in he "speeded" condiion o respond in less han 100Oms, while hose in he "non-speeded" condiion o respond aer 1000ms has passed. The lengh ohe response deadline is based on previous indings suggesing a duraion window o amiliariy o be under 100Oms. has been suggesed ha recogniion ha akes longer han 1000ms is suppored by some degree orecollecion. Thereore, a response deadline o 1000ms should negaively aec recollecion-based recogniion such as associaive ideniicaion, bu no amiliariy-based recogniion such as iem recogniion (or a review, see Yonelinas, 2002). This mehodology invesigaed he naure o he associaive recogniion as well as conex eecs, and allows he comparison o accuracy peronnance or dieren ask demands a rerieval. 12

20 One way Cohn and Moscovich (2007) assessed accuracy perormance was by. compuing he discriminaion raing (hi rae or old pairs - alse alarm rae or rearranged pairs). When a ask requires recollecion, speed should impede paricipans' abiliy o recognize old pairs and correcly rejecing rearranged pairs. For he associaive ideniicaion ask, Cohn and Moscovich (2007) ound discriminaion raes o.09 and.57 or he speeded and non-speeded groups, respecively. For he associaive reinsaemen ask, hey ound discriminaion raes o.10 and.11 in he speeded and non-speeded groups, respecively. The resuls revealed ha speed impaired he accuracy perormance in he associaive ideniicaion ask, bu no in he associaive reinsaemen ask. This indicaes ha he associaive ideniicaion ask involves recollecion, whereas he associaive reinsaemen ask appears o be similar o an iem recogniion ask, which does no necessiae recollecion. mporanly, conex eecs were demonsraed in he associaive reinsaemen ask, releced by an increase in recogniion or "old" compared o "rearranged" word pairs. This shows ha he presence o he pair-word aciliaes word recogniion, in he absence o he demand or he rerieval o associaive inormaion. Few sudies have combined he wo lines oresearch in associaive recogniion memory and conex eecs ogeher in one paradigm. Thereore, Cohn and Moscovich's (2007) sudies were imporan because hey (1) demonsraed conex eecs in word recogniion in he associaive reinsaemen ask; (2) compared he wo ypes oask demands (iem recogniion and associaive recogniion) simulaneously, and (3) used speed o dissociae he conribuion o amiliariy and recollecion on dieren recogniion asks. However, because he sudy used word pairs, i is no cerain ha he resuls will apply o objecs in naural scene. 13

21 Craik and Schloerscheid (2011) examined he involvemen oamiliariy and recollecion in word-background associaion as well as objec-background associaions. Their sudies ocused on he eec oaging on conex eecs in iem and associaive recogniion. Previous research has suggesed ha older aduls exhibi poor binding abiliies (Casel & Craik, 2003, Naveh-Benjamin, 2000), as well as higher reliance on amiliariy, compared o younger aduls (Chalone & Johnson, 1996, Jennings & Jacoby, 2003). Craik and Schloerscheid reasoned ha ibinding beween he iem and he background could no occur a encoding, word/objec recogniion would no depend on he consisency or change ohe sudied conex. Given his raionale, hey hypohesized ha conex eec would be less prominen in older aduls compared o younger aduls due o heir reduced abiliy obinding. n experimen a, words were shown agains a ciy and landscape backgrounds. n experimen 1 b, picures ohe common objecs superimposed on ciy and landscape backgrounds were sudied aer paricipans were insruced o make a connecion beween he objec and is background a sudy. A es, he iems (words in experimen a, and objecs in experimen b) were esed on an old, a rearranged, a new, or no background. The paricipans were asked o recognize he iems as old or new regardless ohe saus ohe background. The resuls revealed ha recogniion perormance was highes or he old iems, ollowed by he rearranged, he new-background, and he nobackground iems in boh age groups. The magniudes ohe conex eecs were similar or words and objecs (a decrease o 12% in hi rae beween old and rearranged iems). mporanly, in conras o wha hey had expeced, old aduls beneied rom conex eec o a similar exen as younger aduls, despie heir declined abiliies o rely on 14 \

22 15 \ i recollecion. These indings imply ha he conex eec migh only require he involvemen oamiliariy and no recollecion. n Experimen 2, he paricipans perormed an associaive ideniicaion ask (objec-background associaive recogniion) by recognizing wheher he objecbackground pairing was old or new (rearranged or old objec - new background iems). n one ourh ohe rials, he paricipans were presened wih he objec on no background and asked o recall he background ha was associaed wih ha objec. The resuls showed ha or he recogniion es, older aduls perormed more poorly han younger aduls in discriminaing old pairings rom new pairings. Speciically, older aduls had higher alse alarm rae (Le. incorrec "yes" responses) or he rearranged iems han ha o he new-backgrounds iems. This inding is consisen wih previous research indicaing ha older aduls have a deici or recollecion, which decreased heir abiliy o correcly rejec novel associaions ha made up oold iems. For he recall es, older aduls perormed much worse compared o younger aduls. Recall memory is primarily driven by recollecion; hus, his inding also agrees wih he noion ha older aduls exhibi recollecion deici. Togeher, he resuls rom Experimen 2 are consisen wih he idea ha older aduls rely more heavily on amiliariy han recollecion o discriminae old rom new iems. There are wo ways in which Craik and Schloerscheid's (2011) indings conribue o he undersanding ohe conex eec as well as associaive recogniion memory. Firs, conex eecs were illusraed o he same exen in boh age groups. Second, he objec-background associaive recogniion ask is similar o Cohn and! Moscovich's descripion oassociaive ideniicaion ask in which he naure ohe ask i,! 1.,

23 demands sraegic rerieval ohe associaions beween wo iems. Togeher, boh sudies ound ha he associaive ideniicaion ask requires recollecion-based recogniion. On he oher hand, iem recogniion can rely primarily on amiliariy, shown in he enhancemen oobjec recogniion in he presence o he sudied conex or older aduls regardless ohe declined abiliies o use recollecion. Curren sudy Previous research has indicaed ha memory binding suppors no only recogniion memory or associaive inormaion, bu also he conex eecs ha aciliaes memory or iem inormaion (Cohn & Moscovich, 2007; Craik & Schloerscheid, 2011; Sluzenski e a., 2006). However, ew sudies have ocused on how he wo lines oresearch mee o answer dieren aspecs ohe same quesion. Adding anoher layer o complexiy when examining he conribuion oamiliariy and recollecion o conex eec is he ac ha some sudies used verbal simuli, while ohers used objec-background simuli. Alhough boh lines oresearch all under he umbrella ohe associaive recogniion memory, one canno be sure ha (l) he binding o word pair would be he same as objec-background associaion, and (2) he conex eecs observed in one ype o simuli would have he same eec on anoher ype o simuli. Lile aenion has been paid o veriying wheher objec-background associaive recogniion should be concepualized similarly o word pair associaions. no, wha migh he dierences be in he associaions beween muliple verbal simuli, and hose beween objecs and backgrounds? These are empirical quesions ha need o be addressed in order or dieren research o collecively undersand he role oconex in recogniion memory as one comprehensive picure. 16

24 The main goal ohe curren sudy is o examine he conex eecs in associaive recogniion asks as well as iem recogniion asks. n addiion o using a conex manipulaion, we also invesigaed he eec oask demands a rerieval on conex eecs. Our primary research quesion concerned wheher amiliariy or recollecion suppor he hree ypes oasks: he associaive ideniicaion ask, he associaive reinsaemen ask, and he objec recogniion ask. nwo experimens, we combined he paradigms employed by Craik and Schloerscheid (2011), and Cohn and Moscovich (2007). The robus conex eecs ound in Hayes e al.'s sudy (2007) migh be due o he ac ha hey used objecs embedded on naural backgrounds, as opposed o oher research ha uses arbirary backgrounds (e.g., Craik & Schloerscheid, 2011; Lloyd, l i Doydum, & Newcombe, 2009; Sluzenski, Newcombe, & Kovacs, 2006). Craik and Schloerscheid' simuli (2011) used common objecs superimposed on ciy and landscape scenes. The associabiliy beween he objecs and backgrounds in hese wo experimens migh dier immensely; and hus, could be a criical acor in he way objec and background are bound a encoding. Similar o Hayes e al. (2007), our ineres ocused on he nauralisic associaion beween objecs and naural backgrounds (e.g., a eapo on a wooden able), wih he inenion o mimic our requen encouners wih objecs in our environmen. The way in which conex eecs aciliae iem recogniion a rerieval has remained unclear. The dual-process heory indicaes wo independen processes ha comprise recogniion memory: amiliariy and recollecion. Many dieren mehods have been employed o answer he quesion as o which process - amiliariy or recollecionr 17

25 conribues o he conex eec oobjec recogniion. Some ohese mehods include he "RememberlKnow" paradigm (e.g., Macken, 2002), conidence raing paradigm (e.g., Humphreys, 1976) as well as age group comparisons (Casel & Craik, 2003; Craik and Schloerscheid, 2011). One ohe limiaions oboh he "rememberlknow" and he " ( conidence raing paradigms is ha hey rely on subjecive repors (or a review, see Y onelinas, 2002). The curren sudies employed he response deadline mehod o! dissociae he conribuion o he wo measures orecogniion. Similar o Cohn and Moscovich's (2007) sudy, his mehod assumes ha he speeded responses «1000ms) i should primarily on amiliariy, whereas he non-speeded responses should rely on recollecion (or a review, see Yonelinas, 2002). There is a debae in some previous research on wheher or no objec-background binding is auomaic (Hayes e al., 2007; Levy e a., 2008) or eorul (Nakashima & Y okosawa, 2011) a encoding. Using he response deadline mehod would provide an addiional measure as o which process accouns or he rerieval odieren recogniion ask demands. speed, negaively impairs recogniion perormance, i suggess ha he ask relies on recollecion. However, i he recogniion perormances are similar beween he speed and non-speeded groups, i suggess ha he ask relies primarily on amiliariy. To summarize, he presen research aims o conribue o he exising lieraure in he ollowing ways: (1) Previous research has mainly ocused on insrucion manipulaions a encoding, whereas ew sudies have used es insrucion manipulaion o examine o eec oask demand a rerieval on conex eecs. (2) Previous research has mainly employed he RememberlKnow (e.g., Macken, 2002) and conidence raing paradigms (e.g., Tulving & l 18

26 Thompson, 1971) o dissociae he conribuion oamiliariy and recollecion in he conex eec. No many sudies have used response deadline mehod o deermine he conribuion ohese processes (Cohn & Moscovich, 2007). (3) To dae, no sudy o which we are aware has compared perormance on iem and associaive recogniion asks simulaneously o sudy objec-background associaion. The closes is work by Cohn and Moscovich (2007) using word pair associaion and response deadline manipulaion o \ r r J sudy iem and associaive recogniion asks a rerieval. 19 ~ ( i

27 Experimen 1 Mehod We examined he eec ospeed on wo dieren recogniion asks, he associaive ideniicaion ask and an objec recogniion ask. Based on he dual-process heory, he objec-background associaive ask requires recollecion; whereas he objec recogniion, an iem recogniion ask, would rely on amiliariy (Craik & Schloerscheid, 2011; Levy e al., 2008). From his sandpoin, speed should have a negaive impac on he objec-background associaive ask, bu no he objec recogniion ask. The main goal ohis experimen is o invesigae wheher amiliariy or recollecion suppors he wo dieren recogniion asks a rerieval. Consisen wih previous research (Cohn and Moscovich, 2007, Jones & Jacoby, 2001; Ligh e al., 2004), we expeced ha he speeded group would perorm more poorly compared o he non-speeded group, in he associaive ideniicaion ask, bu no he objec recogniion ask (bu see Macken, 2002; Nakashima & Yokosawa, 2011). For he associaive ideniicaion ask, we expeced he hi rae o be higher and he alse alarm raes o be lower or he non-speeded group compared o he speeded group because he conribuion orecollecion would allow paricipans o recognize old pairings and correcly rejec novel ones. We also hypohesized ha here will be a conex eec in objec recogniion: he "old" iems would yield ha highes recogniion, ollowed by he rearranged and he new-background iems as is repored in Hayes e a. 's (2007) sudy. Paricipans Fiy-eigh Seon Hall Universiy sudens paricipaed in he sudy or course credi.. All sudens received credi, however, one paricipan's daa were removed rom 20 \

28 he analysis due o programming error. Each paricipan was esed individually on a compuer or in a room wih anoher paricipan. n insances where wo paricipans were esed in he same room, a large board separaed he wo compuers so ha he paricipans could no see each oher's compuer screen. Tweny-eigh and weny-nine paricipans were in he speeded and non-speeded groups, respecively Maerials and Apparaus A oal o 120 picures were used in his sudy. Some ohe picures were aken rom Hayes e al.'s (2007) sudy. Ohers were aken rom nerne image searches in order o have enough simuli. All simuli were manipulaed using Adobe Phooshop CS5. The experimen was programmed using E-Prime 2.0 (Psychology Soware Tools, Pisburgh, PA). Design The experimenal design was a 4 (saus: old, rearranged, new-background, new) x 2 (response deadline: speeded, non-speeded) x 2 (ask: associaive ideniicaion, objec recogniion) mixed design. Response deadline was manipulaed beween-paricipans, and he oher variables were manipulaed wihin-paricipans. The dependen variable was he proporion o"yes" responses. Procedures This experimen consised owo phases: a sudy phase and es phase. A sudy, 80 picures plus 10 buer picures were presened serially 3000ms each wih a 1500ms ~ ls, similar o he iming used in Hayes e al.'s (2007) sudy. Encoding insrucions were given as ollows "Remember he objecs and he backgrounds or an upcoming memory es. " 21 \

29 The es phase immediaely ollowed he sudy phase. A he beginning ohe es phase, paricipans were inooned ha here were wo ypes oquesions. For he "objec +background?" quesion (Le., he associaive ideniicaion ask), he paricipans were insruced o respond "yes" ihey saw he objec and he background previously paired ogeher. For he "objec?" quesion (Le., he objec recogniion ask), he paricipans were insruced o respond "yes" ihey saw he objec, regardless ohe background. The paricipans were insruced o respond by pressing labeled keys "yes" and "no", which corresponded o keys j and on he keyboard, respecively. A pracice phase, consising o5 associaive ideniicaion ask rials and 5 objec recogniion ask rials given in a randomized order, was given aer he es insrucion. During he pracice and recogniion ess, wo ypes oasks were given in a randomized order. The es phase consised o 80 iems: 20 old, 20 rearranged, 20 new-background, and 20 new iems, given in a randomized order. Ou o 80 oal rials, 40 associaive ideniicaion and 40 objec recogniion ask rials were given in a randomized order. The quesions ("objec + background?" or "objec?") were presened on he screen or 150Oms, ollowed by he picure. The paricipans in he speeded condiion were insruced o respond in less han 1000ms aer he onse o he picure presenaion, and ha a red screen wih he words "Speed up" would appear aer 1000ms has passed. Only he responses made wihin he window o ms were recorded. For he non-speeded condiion, he picures were presened on he screen or 1000ms a es, ollowed by a blank screen. The paricipans could only respond aer he 1000ms had passed. Two ses opicures were used o counerbalance picures beween paricipans. Each picure in he wo liss was counerbalanced so ha each picure was viewed in any o he iem sauses an equal 22

30 23 \ number o iems across paricipans. The presenaion orders opicures were randomized or each paricipan a sudy and es phase. J

31 24 \ i Resuls The proporion o"yes" responses was he dependen variable. n he associaive ideniicaion ask, he proporion o"yes" responses or he old iems was he hi rae; whereas he proporion o, 'yes" responses or he rearranged, newbackground and he new iems was he alse alarm rae (see able 1). n he objec recogniion ask, he proporion o"yes" responses or he old, rearranged, newbackground iems were he hi raes; whereas he proporion o''yes'' responses or he new iems are he alse alarm rae. The proporion oresponses ha were made beore he 1000ms deadline in he speeded group was.92. The signiicance level or iniial analysis, pos-hoc and planned comparisons were se a.os. n evens o problems wih sphericiy, he Greenhouse-Geisser values were used. Means as a uncion o iem saus and response deadline are summarized in Table 2. Table 1. Correc response or each condiion in hree recogniion asks in Experimen 1 Tes nsrucion Old Rearran round New Associaive Yes No No deniicaion ask Yes Yes Yes No Table 2. Mean proporion o 'yes" responses or our iem condiions in he associaive ideniicaion ask and he objec recogniion ask or Experimen 1. Sandard deviaions are repored in parenheses. Associaive deniicaion Task i '" l Objec Recogniion Task

32 Comparisons beween Associaive deniicaion and 0 bjec Recogniion Perormance We analyzed he eec oresponse deadline across boh he associaive ideniicaion and he objec recogniion asks by conducing a 2(saus: old, new) x 2 (ask: associaive ideniicaion, objec recogniion) x 2 (response deadline: speeded, nonspeeded) mixed acor ANOV A. This analysis only considered variables or which he same answer was correc or boh asks. An omnibus ANOV A measure would no be appropriae or his analysis using all our levels osaus. Thereore, only he old and he new iem sauses were analyzed because he correc answers or hese iems are he same or boh asks (Le. he proporion o"yes" responses was he hi rae or he old iems, and he alse alarm rae or he new iems). There was a main eec o saus [F(l, 55)= 11.34, p<.05,,,2 =.17 ]. Overall, he hi rae or old iems (M=.62, SE=.03) were higher han alse alarm rae or new iems (M=.27, SE= 03). There was a main eec oask [F(l, 55)= ,p<.001,,,2=.70]. Overall, paricipans were more likely o respond "yes" in he objec recogniion ask (M=.47, SD=.02) han in he associaive ideniicaion ask (M=.42, SD=.02). There was no main eec oresponse deadline [F(l, 55)= 2.67,p=.11,,,2=.05]. Overall, he speeded (M=.41, SE=.03) and he nonspeeded groups (M=. 48, SE=.03) perormed similarly. There was no signiican ineracion beween saus and response deadline [F(l, 55)= 1.13,p=.26,,,2=.02]. The eec oresponse deadline on he hi and he alse alarm raes were similar or he old and new iems. There was no signiican ineracion beween ask and saus [F(l, 55)< 1, 25 \

33 p=.69, '12=.00]. Paricipans' hi and alse alann raes were similar beween he associaive ideniicaion and he objec recogniion asks. There was no signiican ineracion beween ask and response deadline [F(l, 55)= 1.31,p=.26, '12=.02]. The eec oresponse deadline on he overall perormance was similar beween he associaive ideniicaion and he objec recogniion asks. The hree-way ineracion o saus, ask, and response deadline was no signiican [F(l, 55)< 1, p=.90, '12 =.00].!! l! e! ~ The eec o response deadline on he associaive ideniicaion ask The nex se o analyses ocused on each recogniion memory ask individually. The resuls or he Associaive deniicaion Task are displayed in Figure 2. 1 Associaive deniicaion Proporion o "Yes" proporion Speeded (n=28) Nonspeeded (n=29) Old Rearranged New-background New Figure 2. The mean proporion o "yes" responses or he our iem ypes in he Associaive deniicaion Task oexperimen 1. The doed ban represen alse alarms and he error bars relec sandard error. 26 \ l

34 \ We conduced a 4 (saus: old, rearranged, new-background, new) x 2(response deadline: speeded, non-speeded) repeaed measures ANOVA on he "yes" responses o associaive ideniicaion rials. There was a main eec osaus [F(3, 55)= 31.01, p<.001,11 2 =.36]. Overall, paricipans responded dierenly across he our iem sauses. There was a main eec oresponse deadline [F(l, 55)= 4.50,p<.05,11 2 =.08]. Overall, paricipans were more likely o respond "yes" in he non-speeded group (M=.47, SE=.03) han in he speeded group (M=.38, SE=.03). There was no signiican ineracion beween saus and response deadline [F(3, 55)=.35,p=.79, 11 2 =.01]. The eec o response deadline was similar across he our ypes oes iems (old, rearranged, newbackground, and new iems) To urher analyze he main eec o saus, paired-sample ess were conduced o compare he hi and alse alarm raes across our iem sauses. The resuls revealed ha he hi rae or old iems (M=.59, SE=.03) was signiicanly higher han he alse alarm raes or he rearranged iems (M=.43, SE=.03), [(56)= 3.99,p<.001], and he new-background iems (M=.42, SE=.03), [(56)= 4.63,p<.001]. There was no signiican dierence in he alse alarm raes beween he rearranged iems and he newbackground iems [(56)=.38,p=.70]. On average, he alse alarm rae or he new iems (M=.25, SE=.03) was signiicanly lower compared o he old iems [(56)= 9.25, p<.001], he rearranged iems [(56)= 4.90,p<.001], and he new-background iems [(56)= 6.29,p<.001]. 27 \

35 The eec o response deadline on he objec recogniion ask The nex se oanalyses ocused on each recogniion memory ask individually. The resuls or he Objec Recogniion Task are displayed in Figure 3. 1 Objec Recogniion Proporion o "Yes" responses Speeded (n=28) Nonspeeded (n=29) Old Rearranged New-background New Figure 3. The mean proporion o "yes" responses or he our iem ypes in he Objec Recogniion Task o Experimen 1. The doed bars represen alse alarms and he error bars reec sandard error. We conduced a 4 (saus: old, rearranged, new-background, new) x 2 (response deadline: speeded, non-speeded) repeaed measures ANOVA on he proporion o"yes" responses o he conex rials. There was a main eec o saus [F(3, 55)= 31.34,p<.001, 1/ 2 =.36]. Paricipans responded dierenly across our iem sauses. There was no main eec oresponse deadline [F(, 55)= 2.08,p=.16,1/ 2 =.04]. Overall, he speeded (M=.46, SE=.03) and he non-speeded groups (M=.52, SE=.03) perormed similarly. 28

36 There was no ineracion beween saus and response deadline [F(3, 55)=.29,p=.84,1'/2 =.01]. The eecs oresponse deadline were similar across our iem sauses. To inerpre he main eec osaus, paired-sample ess were conduced o compare he hi and alse alarm raes in he our iem sauses. The resuls revealed ha, he hi rae was signiicanly higher or he old iems (M=.65, SE=.03) compared o he rearranged iems (M=.53, SE=.03), [(56)= 3.64,p<.05], and he new-background iems (M=.49, SE=.03), [(56)= 4.16,p<.001], represening he conex eec. There was no signiican dierence in hi raes beween he rearranged iems and he new-background iems [(56)=.97,p=.34]. The alse alarm rae or he new iems (M=.29, SE=.03) was signiicanly lower han he hi raes or he old iems [(56)= 9.44,p<.001], he rearranged iems [(56)= 6.16, p<.001], and he new-background iems [(56)= 5.27,p<.001]. These resuls parallel hose ohe Associaive deniicaion ask.!, i i! J 29

37 Discussion Overall, he resuls showed ha hi and alse alarm raes were similar beween he, i l associaive ideniicaion and he objec recogniion asks. Furher he response deadline did no have an eec on he accuracy perormance oeiher ask. n ac, he paern o responses was very similar across he wo ypes oes quesions. Associaive deniicaion Task Overall, paricipans were successul a discriminaing beween old pairings rom novel pairings, indicaed by a signiicanly higher hi rae or old iems han he alse alarm raes in hree oher sauses. However, here was no signiican dierence in alse alarm raes beween he rearranged and he new-background iems, suggesing ha he reinsaemen o a amiliar background ha was paired wih anoher objec a sudy (Le. rearranged iems) did no elevae alse alarm rae compared o presening he objec wih a novel background. The response deadline had an eec on paricipans' responses, which was driven by overall elevaion o "yes" responses in he non-speeded compared o he speeded group. Tha is, no only he hi rae or old iems was higher, bu he alse alarm raes or he rearranged and new-background iems were also increased in he non-speeded compared o he speeded group. n a radiional associaive recogniion paradigm in which an associaive ask requires recollecion, higher hi rae and lower alse alarm rae are observed or he non-speeded group compared o he speeded group (Jones & Jacoby, 200; Ligh e al, 2004). n conras, we ound an overall elevaion or boh hi and alse alarm raes in he non-speeded compared o he speeded group. Our resuls demonsraed an absence oresponse deadline eec on accuracy perormance in he associaive 30

38 ideniicaion ask, implying ha his ask migh primarily rely on amiliariy. This may relec an imporan dierence beween memory or arbirary word pairs and ha o objecs in naural backgrounds. We will reurn o his idea in he general discussion. 1 Our indings were inconsisen wih hose ocohn and Moscovich (2007), who showed ha a response deadline impeded perormance in he associaive ideniicaion ask. Their resuls revealed a robus eec oresponse deadline on discriminaion raes beween he speeded (.09) and he non-speeded (.57) groups using word pair simuli. 1 However, our resuls indicaed ha response deadline had no eec on accuracy perormance in his ask. Conrary o our hypohesis, we ound evidence or a amiliariy- driven process in he associaive ideniicaion ask using objec and naural background simuli. Objec Recogniion Task 1 We replicaed conex eecs as repored by Hayes e al. (2007): he hi rae was! he highes or he old iems, ollowed by he rearranged and he new-background iems.! Consisen wih Craik and Schloerscheid's mdings (2011), he resuls suggesed ha he reinsaemen o a paired background increased objec recogniion. Furher, he ailure o observe a dierence in hi raes beween he rearranged and he new-background iems indicaed ha conex eecs did no resul rom a reinsaemen oany amiliar background, bu only rom he speciic background ha was paired wih objec a sudy. This inding was oparicular ineres because i speaks or he naure oobjecbackground binding a encoding. he objec and background were encoded individually a sudy, one would expec ha he reinsaemen o an unassociaed sudied background migh induce amiliariy o a greaer exen han a novel background would. Thereore,! 1 l 31 \ J

39 32 he hi rae or he rearranged iems would be higher han ha or he new-background iems. Based he on absence ohis dierence in hi raes, our resuls suggesed ha objec and background migh no be encoded individually, bu raher as one coheren iem. Relevan o his' argumen is he inding by Craile and Schloerscheid (20 ), showing ha older aduls could benei rom conex eecs o a similar exen as younger aduls, despie heir binding deicis. The observed conex eecs suggesed ha objecbackground binding mus have occurred a encoding o some degree in older aduls. The quesion becomes hen, how could his binding occur when older aduls exhibi poor binding abiliies? Alhough he auhors did no address his issue direcly, heir indings had an implicaion regarding he naure oobjec-background binding. The ac ha older aduls' binding deicis did no aenuae conex eecs indicaed ha objec and background migh be encoded as one whole eniy as opposed o wo individual iems. n suppor oour hypohesis, we ound ha response deadline did no have an eec on paricipans' perormance, suggesing ha he speeded and non-speeded groups perormed similarly in his ask. Craile and Schloerscheid (20 ) ound ha older aduls could benei rom conex eecs despie oheir poor abiliy o rely on recollecion. Togeher, our mdings and hose by Craile and Schloerscheid demonsraed ha paricipans relied primarily on he assessmen ohe objecs' amiliariy while perorming he objec recogniion ask. n summary, he resuls o Experimen showed ha boh he associaive ideniicaion and he objec recogniion ask demands migh rely on he amiliariy, a leas or objecs embedded in naural backgrounds. We coninued o invesigae he

40 conex eecs or iem recogniion in wo asks: associaive reinsaemen and objec recogniion, in Experimen \

41 Experimen 2 Mehod We examined he eec oresponse deadline on wo dieren asks, he associaive reinsaemen and he objec recogniion ask. Findings rom Cohn and Moscovich (2007) suggesed ha he associaive reinsaemen ask is essenially an iem recogniion ask because he rerieval or he associaive inormaion is no required. n hese rials, paricipans are asked o endorse an iem as old iboh he objec and background were presened a sudy eiher ogeher or separaely. Based on he resuls o Cohn and Moscovich (2007), we anicipaed ha response deadline should no have an eec because recollecion is no required o rejec rearranged iems as novel associaions in he associaive reinsaemen ask. Thereore, we hypohesized ha response deadline should no have an accuracy eec on eiher ask. Similar o experimen 1, we expeced o observed conex eecs in boh asks: recogniion would be highes or he old, compared o he rearranged and he newbackground iems. Research using he dual-process models has shown ha he nonspeeded group would be able o rely on recollecion o no only endorse old iems bu also correcly rejec new iems. Thereore, accuracy perormance a perorming his ask would be similar beween he speeded and he non-speeded groups. Paricipans Seveny-seven Seon Hall Universiy sudens paricipaed in he sudy or course credi. All sudens received course credi or paricipaion; however, wo paricipans' daa were no included in he analysis due o programming errors. Each paricipan was esed individually on a compuer or in a room wih anoher paricipan. n insances 34 \

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