The Internationalisation of Education Ð Schools in Europe and the SOCRATES Programme

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1 European Journal of Education, Vol. 36, No. 4, 2001 The Internationalisation of Education Ð Schools in Europe and the SOCRATES Programme JEAN GORDON Introduction In July 1939, the Glasgow School Travel Association organised a two-week visit to Dinard for secondary school pupils. In the handbook preparing the visit, the Association stated that it was `no slave of the outworn (if time-honoured) delusion of ``giving the scholars a smattering of the language'' of any European country. The committee's chief aim is to help young people to observe for themselves how our neighbours in France, Belgium or Germany live, where they live, and what they do and think. Such chances of making close contact with the youth of other lands does ever so much to enlarge the mental horizon of the adolescent and helps, if only in a small way, to correct our national British tendency to be ``insular'' '. In view of subsequent events, this trip was to remain imprinted in the memories of at least some of those pupils. During the 1930s, visits were organised to France, Germany, Luxembourg, Switzerland and Belgium for almost 2,000 pupils in Glasgow, most of whom had rarely been out of the area, never mind the UK. Did these visits change their attitudes to other cultures, make them more excited about learning a foreign language, affect their later lives? The school trip, whether with the Spanish teacher, the school orchestra or the rugby team has long been considered a desirable contribution to educating future citizens but does it constitute internationalisation of school education? There is a tendency now to reject the traditional school trip as mere `educational tourism'. In that case, what do we mean by internationalisation of education? Answers range broadly. Education staff underline the importance of raising the awareness of pupils (primary and secondary alike) to other languages and cultures in an era when labour markets are potentially Europe-wide, but also evoke reasons of tolerance, democracy and citizenship. The means are through visits but also projects, correspondence, theatre, music productions, etc. Some schools, directly or indirectly, seem to welcome the added-value of an international activity, insofar as it may enhance the reputation of the school and attract pupils. Teachers invoke the international experience as a necessary part of the updating of their skills (such as foreign language skills), a break from routine, an opportunity to develop an activity outside the constraints of national programmes, etc. The question remains: what is the aim of internationalising education? What form do we expect it to assume and what content should it be given? From 1995 to 1999, the first SOCRATES programme of the European Union provided over 900 million euros for a broad range of education activities and. Published by Blackwell Publishers Ltd, 108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JF, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, USA.

2 408 European Journal of Education mobility in almost 30 countries (by 1999). In 1999, the Wissenschaftliches Zentrum fuè r Berufs- und Hochschulforschung, UniversitaÈ t GH Kassel, in conjunction with the European Institute of Education and Social Policy, Paris, and the Gesellschaft fuè r Empirische Studien, Kassel, were commissioned to undertake a global evaluation of the programme at the end of its first phase (Teichler et al., 2000). One aspect of the work of the EIESP in this partnership focused on those chapters of the programme which included, though not exclusively, school education (COMENIUS and LINGUA). This article also draws on the data and analyses of two evaluations carried out at the same time as the global evaluation but each focusing on a specific aspect: European school partnerships (Deloitte & Touche, 2000) and the participation of people with disabilities (European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education, 2000). The aim of this article, which takes SOCRATES as a case-study, is to examine the effects, outcomes and different impacts of European funding on schools in order to begin to draw out some of the criteria necessary for internationalising school education. From 1995 to 1999, SOCRATES I provided European funding for which all schools were potentially eligible for the first time. Hence, the evaluations provided a first opportunity to `map' the use of the funds, the involvement of schools of different types and levels, teachers and pupils and the immediate, short term impacts on institutions and individuals. It also sought to investigate the ways in which schools and education systems (at local and national levels) were setting up mechanisms to ensure a more lasting impact. One of the implicit issues was whether or not these activities could and would contribute to internationalising school education. For several years, there has been a debate about the role of ERASMUS/ SOCRATES in contributing to more structured international policies in higher education institutions. The responses and objectives of the higher education communities are reported in the SOCRATES 2000 evaluation (see the article by Friedhelm Maiworm in this issue). One set of aims of the institutions which were surveyed addresses the issue of internationalising higher education for non-mobile students (the majority) through curriculum development and exchange of academic staff, while another concerns improving the quality of higher education through international activity. Their criteria of internationalisation include numbers of mobile students and members of staff, support provided for students, international visibility of the institution and the use of ECTS and curriculum development. This debate is taken up by Marijk van der Wende in her article in this issue, whilst Ulrich Teichler analyses what we know and do not know about the effects of student mobility on graduates' future careers. It is equally relevant to pose these questions about the effects of COMENIUS and LINGUA on schools and more broadly on the education systems of which they are a part. European funding for mobility, exchange and development activities in higher education institutions have existed for over 20 years, which means that current research is set in a much longer time perspective than that for schools. All the questions analysed for higher education are equally relevant to schools, but the answers necessarily remain more tentative. The central question is whether or not the processes stimulated by SOCRATES funding for schools constitute the basis of internationalisation of school education, as opposed to enabling international experiences. The article

3 Jean Gordon 409 draws on three sources to explore this issue. The first is an analysis by Ulrich Teichler (Baggen et al., 1998) of whether or not European universities are defining European or international approaches and the different meanings of European present. As in higher education, international experiences for pupils in schools are, of course, neither recent nor limited to those funded by an EU programme. The SOCRATES programme has, however, introduced new conditions by providing a regular source of funding, some of which has reached the poorer and more rural schools and populations which were traditionally less likely to benefit from an international experience during their schooling. It has also introduced a set of objectives for those experiences, the first of which is developing a `European dimension' in education. This raises interesting questions for national curricula. The theme of the European dimension is further explored later on in this article. The second source is the recent work of Sùren Kristensen. His article in this issue discusses a possible conceptual framework to clarify the purposes and outcomes of mobility through work placements for students in vocational education and training. His observations are largely based on the experiences of the EU's LEONARDO DA VINCI programme, but similar questions need to be explored for schools. Third, a recent project coordinated by the ACIU (The Danish Centre for International Training Programmes) and published in 2000 commissioned a set of studies which examined the internationalisation of vocational education and training from different national perspectives. The Danish one put forward recommendations about the type of support required for internationalisation policies to be formulated and implemented. They point to the need, at government level, for a policy, a vision, support in the form of funding and adapted regulations, all backed by institutional strategies. These issues are taken up in a later section of this article which examines longer term impacts. The first section of this article presents a brief description of how schools can participate in SOCRATES-funded activities. It is followed by an analysis of the immediate impacts reported through the evaluation surveys and interviews which give some suggestions about the possible content of internationalisation in schools. The next section then examines conditions for sustaining a longer term impact and the final section draws together aspects of the contributions of COMENIUS and LINGUA to internationalising school education. SOCRATES in brief: Chapter 1: Higher Education (ERASMUS) Chapter 2: School Education (COMENIUS) Chapter 3: Horizontal Actions: LINGUA, Open and Distance Learning, Adult Education, Exchange of information and experience on education systems and policy (Eurydice, NARICs, Arion, etc.) Dates: January 1995±December 1999 Budget: 933 million Euros Eligible countries: 1995±1997: the 15 EU Member States + Norway, Iceland & Liechtenstein 1997 & 1998: Candidate countries: Cyprus, Romania, Hungary, Poland, the Czech and Slovak Republics 1999: Bulgaria, Slovenia, Lithuania, Estonia and Latvia

4 410 European Journal of Education Participation of Schools in SOCRATES SOCRATES for schools: COMENIUS funded school partnerships to carry out joint projects, partnerships to develop solutions for the education of migrant workers, occupational travellers, travellers, and Gypsies, as well as intercultural education; supported the development of European in-service training projects for teachers and gave grants to teachers to follow the courses developed. LINGUA funded European Cooperation Programmes for language teacher training and provided grants for in-service training of foreign language teachers and assistantships for future language teachers, and funded projects that developed instruments for language learning and teaching, as well as joint educational programmes for schools. OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING ± some schools also participated in partnerships funded under this action which integrated new technologies and new media in the educational process and promoted ODL services. In quantitative terms, it is estimated that there were about 3,700 schools partnerships funded under COMENIUS European Education Projects (EEPs) and that about 1,500 schools participated each year in LINGUA-funded Joint Educational Projects (JEPs). Some 5,250 teachers received COMENIUS grants, over 34,000 received LINGUA grants to follow training courses and there were about 2,800 grants for LINGUA assistantships. Schools also participated as partners in projects that developed education solutions for migrant workers, Gypsies, etc, and developed intercultural education ± about 20% of the total number of partners. They were present as partners (in small numbers) in some projects which developed in-service training for academic staff or were funded under the OPEN and DISTANCE LEARNING Action (about 8% of the total number of partners). Schools participated in the following types of activities: school projects without funded mobility (COMENIUS EEPs) school projects with funded mobility for pupils (LINGUA JEPs) grants for teachers to fund their participation in European teacher training courses (COMENIUS and LINGUA) projects that did not specifically fund school-based activities (e.g. COMENIUS or ODL) but developed teaching and learning approaches and materials for schools hosting an assistant (LINGUA). In terms of the potential population, the numbers are of course very small, but European cooperation was promoted through school partnerships which established contacts and exchange among pupils in different countries, both directly and indirectly. Under COMENIUS, participants considered that the European dimension in education was given concrete forms in many ways, from

5 Jean Gordon 411 new forms of cooperation to knowledge about Europe, the European Union and its institutions. Teacher mobility was also encouraged. LINGUA partnerships fulfilled an important priority, the participation of pupils/students in vocational education and training institutions, though not without difficulty in some countries. The schools surveyed considered that partnerships contributed to increasing the motivation and capacity of young people to communicate in foreign languages, since the projects were set up in such a way that direct communication between the young people of the different groups was the primary focus. As a result, school staff reported that they were able to achieve a deeper knowledge of each other's culture. COMENIUS-funded project teams showed great interest in developing teaching methods and pedagogical approaches for intercultural education and for children of migrants. The quality of teaching and teacher training, as well as access to education, parent involvement, language teaching and fighting racism and xenophobia were all important themes. Coordinators felt the need to enlarge the concept of `Europe' to include the range of cultures present in multicultural societies. Reported Impacts The investigations undertaken for the evaluation of COMENIUS and LINGUA included analysis of key documentation and reports, database analysis, postal surveys and surveys through interviews of actors and beneficiaries, and thematic workshops. Questionnaires were sent to about 400 COMENIUS and LINGUA project coordinators (and just over 160 for the ODL action) and the analysis is based on an almost 50% response rate. In addition, questionnaires were sent to 2,000 teachers who had received grants to follow training courses and the analysis is based on a 40% response rate for COMENIUS and a 30% response rate for LINGUA. Finally, 640 LINGUA assistants received questionnaires, with a 45% response rate. Interviews were carried out with just over 40 project coordinators and other interviews and questionnaires explored the national perspective (see van der Wende in this issue). Thematic workshops ± two national and one transnational ± brought together some 85 participants (project managers, national agency staff, ministry of education officials, school teachers, head teachers, etc.). The analysis presented below is based on the results of these enquiries. This section begins by examining the definitions of the notion of a European dimension given by project coordinators and beneficiaries of grants and then looks at the different types of impact on the classroom and the pupils, individual teachers and teams of teachers, schools as a whole, and the foreign language assistants. The European Dimension Among the objectives of SOCRATES I, the first was to develop the European Dimension in education at all levels so as to strengthen the spirit of European citizenship, drawing on the cultural heritage of each Member State. The Programme does not give a closed definition but allows for variety, interpretation and experimentation, while nevertheless suggesting underlying moral values. Broadly, it was perceived by the actors in COMENIUS and LINGUA as a `good

6 412 European Journal of Education thing', but was defined differently by participants and constituencies within the Programme. Participants were interested in definitions that were not too abstract. They knew what the European dimension was in practice and in context but would have hesitated to apply an umbrella label. Everyone could give examples, but, in the end, the European dimension was best defined by series of small steps taken within specific projects. The very fact of working with people from other countries was considered to provide added-value. For some people, the most important aspect of the structure and support provided by SOCRATES was that it enabled them to work with people from other countries. It allowed them to foster and develop their networks. This process was certainly a significant aspect of the European dimension. But participants also described the European dimension as better knowledge about and understanding of other systems, cultures, and countries, as well as greater awareness of diversity (language, education, culture). It was present in the examination of common issues and differing solutions by project partners. Importantly, the European dimension was the critical view of their own system and situation which develops through a transnational approach. COMENIUS projects defined the European dimension by the fact that they belonged to a network which led to European teams working together on exchange of expertise, good practice and methods which brought into play their different approaches and education systems, including through the use of information and communication technologies, and made them feel part of a larger community of interests and ideas. They felt that raising awareness of cultural differences, initiating discussion on racism in education or democracy, encouraging mutual understanding and increasing people's understanding of minority groups enhanced the perception of a European dimension. The fact that partnerships could be extended to include institutions from the Central and Eastern European countries was important. Furthermore, one must note that the discussion on the European dimension led coordinators to comment on the need to enlarge `Europe' to include the minority cultures in society. LINGUA projects defined the European dimension very broadly in terms of an exchange of expertise among partners, working together on a concrete project, an experience of intercultural work, establishing a consensus around common working methods. It raised awareness of the possibility to develop language learning methods and materials at the European level. These projects allowed actors in the field to develop approaches and products which addressed the needs of a broader audience for foreign language learning, including outside Europe. Europe was not only seen to be about learning a language. There was also the intercultural dimension and learning about other countries. Actors considered it very important for pupils and students to develop a strong notion of living in a multicultural society. Hence, the notion of `Europe' almost took on a moral value. Linked to this was the issue of the multicultural characteristics of contemporary Europe. At one level, SOCRATES actions set out to raise awareness in education in the participating countries of other European languages and cultures. At another, they raised, directly or indirectly, the issue of the minority and immigrant cultures in society. In the interviews with key actors at national level, several mentioned the importance of COMENIUS projects and partnerships in introducing or encouraging the development of a `European dimension' in schools, as for

7 Jean Gordon 413 example in France and Belgium. In Greece, interviewees considered it important to introduce a European dimension early in order to cultivate the concept of European citizenship. This idea was echoed by the Romanian interviewees who felt that one aspect of the impact on pupils/students was that they were being educated in `a spirit of European values'. For Austrian actors, COMENIUS enabled them to establish a European dimension in a broad range of schools so that it would not be limited to an eâ lite. This was backed up by the fact that it was estimated that 13% of all schools were involved in SOCRATES. Finnish colleagues also considered COMENIUS a good way to promote a European dimension. In the Czech Republic, the understanding of and positive attitudes towards a European dimension were helped by a successful project `How to teach the European dimension'. An Irish interviewee nevertheless pointed out that, despite the high level of motivation of pupils gained through linking up with pupils in other countries, there was a gap between the perception of mainstream work and the European dimension. The interviewee went on to say `it's teaching whatever subject one is teaching from a perspective that is not only national but is European as well'. This also reflects the national curriculum reforms in Norway in 1997 which prioritised internationalisation in education and, in this case, COMENIUS was a way of developing teaching and learning modules to support such a priority. The above begins to give us an idea of the content that schools participating in the programme might give to the content of internationalisation. It is concrete but also moral, it has specific contents, but is also a process. It could include: 1. Working in partnership to foster networks; 2. Learning languages and about other countries and cultures, including reflections on cultural differences, xenophobia, etc.; 3. Gaining knowledge and understanding, through training courses and project activities, of common issues but differing solutions and being able to take a more critical view of one's own system and context; 4. Feeling part of a larger community of interest; 5. Experimenting with a more European approach to language learning tools. The Impact on Participants and Institutions The questionnaires and the interviews highlighted the following types of impact on individuals and their organisations. This first global evaluation of SOCRATES funding for schools `mapped' the uses and users. Comments tended to be on immediate impact; they were subjective and provided opinions and comment on the experience. An important perceived benefit for the institutions participating in or managing projects was that SOCRATES provided a source of outside funding which gave access to activities and products that would otherwise have not been possible. In that sense, it provided a funding structure which was a `window of opportunity'. Participants reported a better profile and image with their own authorities and said that the project approach contributed to the quality of their working methods and the types of materials used. It fostered project management skills, gave them the experience of organising international meetings, improved

8 414 European Journal of Education their team work and had an effect on relations (within the staff, between staff and students and with parents). All in all, the experience opened up the institution to the `outside', to Europe and even to the rest of the world. Participating in a SOCRATES project was felt to have significant repercussions, particularly on small organisations, making them think `European'. The main benefits for staff were seen to be new and improved skills such as in languages, project management, information and communication technologies (ICTs) and managing budgets. They referred to improved areas of professional competency and better team working, as well as better knowledge of an area of work through project activity and transnational cooperation, such as exclusion, combating racism, etc. Very importantly, this approach provided an exchange at practitioner level. Pupils were seen to have benefited (directly or indirectly) from new materials, methods and approaches, as well as gaining better understanding of issues explored. Academic staff felt that they showed greater motivation, learning to work in teams, and developed their ICT skills. There were clearly some benefits in terms of improving equal opportunities. Women were very well represented in the projects and initiatives, forming the majority of beneficiaries of training grants and over 80% of the assistants, a result which reflected the gender make up of the European education systems. From another perspective, the role of local and regional advisers in COMENIUS and LINGUA school partnerships was very important in targeting either rural schools or schools with a disadvantaged population or with pupils with special needs. The partnership between the National Agencies and the regional staff in seeking to promote participation from schools which do not usually participate in European activities established a solid basis for increasing their participation under SOCRATES II. One of the major successes of LINGUA school partnerships was the participation of vocational education and training schools, thus promoting participation among groups which are often less likely to benefit from a European experience. From the above, there was a definite `feel good' factor about the process of European partnerships, projects and courses which was seen to have: 1. improved individual and group skills (team work, foreign languages, project management skills) 2. built good relations among actors 3. added to subject knowledge 4. provided a window of opportunity in terms of funding and structures 5. enhanced institutional profiles 6. contributed to improving equal opportunities. The above provides examples of perceptions, but, ideally, internationalisation should probably be more longer term and may depend on policies and strategies defined at systemic level. In other words, how can education systems build on the enthusiasm of schools to consolidate the effects and formulate coherent approaches? What mechanisms are required? Building a Longer Term Impact This section will examine examples of gaps or lack of consolidation which the global evaluation suggests may hinder more systematic and systemic approaches

9 Jean Gordon 415 to internationalisation. The Danish AICU study makes strong recommendations about the need for policies formulation and the means and strategies to implement them at national as well as institutional levels. The evaluation studies of the different actions of COMENIUS and LINGUA suggest, however, that there are few examples of more systemic approaches, based on a policy direction with clear objectives and a well-developed strategy to achieve them. Taking the example of the COMENIUS school partnerships (Deloitte & Touche, 2000), the evaluation found that the integration of the project outcomes into the curriculum and the possible multiplier effects were two areas that needed further development. However from a process point of view, longer term internationalisation was encouraged by the role of regional advisers or `relay' staff in some of the participating countries (Teichler et al., 2000). During the life cycle of SOCRATES I, their role became increasingly important in ensuring a broad spread of beneficiaries and their direct knowledge of local schools allowed them to target information in order to attract participation from schools in rural or disadvantaged areas. It was not always clear from the interviews whether these policy orientations were part of a national policy to broaden participation or dependent on the individual regional adviser. In requesting that the evaluators make a specific examination of the effects of the European in-service training for teachers funded under SOCRATES, the European Commission acknowledged the essential role of the academic staff. At present, the grants fund very small numbers in comparison with the total eligible population. The issue of whether or not the actions should aim at attaining a critical mass is linked to issues of follow-up after courses and the dissemination of what individual teachers have learned. The potential impact of teacher training must also be assessed for the broader impact on the beneficiary's home institution. Whether or not teachers have the possibility of disseminating information about the course and what they have learned varies considerably according to country. Given that numbers are unlikely to increase substantially in the short term, it may be useful for participating countries to reflect on whether and how more benefits could be drawn from the experiences of the beneficiaries. This is an example of an action which could contribute towards defining an international policy. It can be very difficult for teachers to follow up European activity in the school if there is no institutional support. One suggestion is to encourage more than one teacher from a school to follow European training courses in order to have several people interested in developing a European input in a school's projects. In order to reach far higher numbers of academic staff either the budget would have to be substantially increased or the grants lowered. This question was raised during some of the interviews with national key actors. There is clearly an on-going debate between reducing the percentage of costs covered in order to give grants to more teachers or covering most costs in order to make sure that personal financial considerations do not prevent teachers from participating. Another major issue discussed at the transnational workshop was that of mechanisms for acknowledging teachers' participation in European training courses. In some countries, for example, courses can contribute to a further teaching qualification. There was general agreement on the importance of reflecting on how to develop mechanisms for recognition and to assess their impact on national systems (in other than quantitative terms).

10 416 European Journal of Education By 1999, preparation for LINGUA assistants had not become systematic; only some assistants received information packages or attended courses. The success of the action appears to lie not in the formal aspects, but in the good will of the institution to integrate and welcome the assistant and the flexibility of the assistant to adapt to a new education system. Host schools emphasised the importance of planning for the assistant and managing the process to ensure that as many members of staff and pupils as possible are involved. A more systematic approach to preparation by national authorities could be part of an international policy. Another information issue raised concerned the participation of staff and pupils with disabilities (European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education, 2000). This evaluation puts forward a recommendation about improving access to information as an enabling factor for the European experience. It emphasised the need to increase the quantitative participation of people with disabilities and therefore the need for information on the support available. Disseminating information about the programmes in a range of accessible ways could contribute to building international policy approaches. There is also the issue of the `mainstreaming' (or not) of outcomes. Is SOCRATES, in the end, about funding an activity which is complementary or supplementary to mainstream activities in the education systems? Or is it about contributing to fundamental change? The two approaches are obviously not seen to be in opposition, but the first may be the easier to implement in the short term. The second requires greater political will, a more organised strategy and a high level of coordination and cooperation among actors at the different levels. It also requires the political will of the Member States and the means to go with it. The evaluation found little evidence of the embedding of modules and courses developed with COMENIUS and LINGUA funding into national teacher training programmes. It may well be too early, but the potential for mainstreaming could be analysed as one aspect of the criteria for a quality assessment of the product. Some of the key actors at national level did refer to effects on the national curriculum, as for example in the UK where interviewees welcomed a stronger focus on the European dimension by the school inspectorate and the Austrian interviewees who highlighted the internationalisation priorities of their education system. However, in 17 out of the 26 countries surveyed, no systematic evaluation of the activities and projects funded was undertaken and there was little evidence of carefully evaluated hard outcomes or of checking, collecting, disseminating and sharing information about hard and soft outcomes at any levels. The reason given was lack of funding and suitable staff. Interviewees at national level tended to emphasise the (positive) impacts for the individual schools both for COMENIUS and LINGUA. Interestingly, they also raised the issue of how long an individual member of staff could sustain the effort of a European project, which may suggest lack of support from the education system. A further aspect of internationalisation is mobility. There has not been substantial research or longitudinal studies on the types of mobility undertaken with COMENIUS and LINGUA support from the point of view of the effect it has on the participant. It is suggested that investigations could be undertaken (perhaps in collaboration with the LEONARDO DA VINCI programme) to enlighten the organisers of mobility on its effects and effectiveness depending on

11 Jean Gordon 417 the age of the participants, their roles and functions, and the circumstances (both of the individual and the context). This is at the centre of the argument put forward by Sùren Kristensen in his article in this issue about mobility for students in vocational education and training. Indicative of the lack of hard evidence are the contrasting points of view about whether or not school exchanges broaden horizons. In the case of LINGUA exchanges, which allowed for a two-week stay in the partner country, though doubt was voiced on whether or not it was too short for students to learn anything of the other culture, few systems would have been able to incorporate a longer period of exchange. In some countries, even two weeks was difficult to accommodate, especially for students on vocational courses which include work periods. The illuminative experience of the moment, however positive, must be balanced against the measurement of the longer term effect. There is a further issue as to whether programmes should concentrate on teacher or pupil mobility. It is suggested that teacher mobility may be more costeffective in terms of its impact. The higher education institutions which were surveyed quoted teaching staff mobility as an important factor that contributed to the internationalisation of higher education for non-mobile students (see the article by Friedhelm Maiworm in this issue). A major issue is whether or not SOCRATES can ever address a large enough number of schools and teachers to make a direct impact on education systems. Some actors pointed out that if SOCRATES funding was seen as resources for change, then in order for the change to be effective, up to 10 times that funding support would be required from the home institution (region, State, etc.). The benefit depended on the implementation of a strategy adopted locally and nationally which needed to be consistent and long term. Formulating strategy will need to include a reflection on the types of obstacles to be overcome, including non replacement of teachers (away with classes or on training courses), general financial issues, the need for some form of recognition or acknowledgement in career or qualification terms, the need for recognition of work through financial reward or time allowance, etc. These are among the types of enabling means referred to by the Danish AICU study. Given the larger picture, most projects, whether implemented within the SOCRATES context or others, had difficulty in sustaining the hoped for outcomes, whether because of shortages in time and resources, or a shortfall in political will. Actors wondered how far the SOCRATES components were embedded in the central activities of schools, universities, etc. in order to survive the inevitable ending of the programmes and central funding. The same question can, of course, be asked of regions or even Member-States and associated countries. Internationalisation in Schools SOCRATES has acted as a `window of opportunity' for developing European activities in and with schools since the mid-1990s. The content was not too prescribed, which has allowed for a broad range of initiatives and themes. In many schools, it has certainly acted as a catalyst for developing European activities; a de facto internationalisation. In summary, the evaluators found a definite `feel good' factor, with great enthusiasm on the part of the academic staff who report

12 418 European Journal of Education immediate outcomes. There would appear to be real impacts at local (individual and school) level: project materials, modules, teachers who have followed a course in a specific pedagogical area, etc. There is an ever increasing audience for European programmes and, in some cases, attempts have been made to spread the benefits to disadvantaged areas. However, the information collected from project coordinators and academic staff who benefited from grants is necessarily somewhat subjective, providing personal assessments. Comments are also about very subjective aspects, such as the better atmosphere in the classroom, the better relations with parents, more teamwork, etc. European funding allows schools to do something in addition to the basic curriculum activities with the extra resources (however limited). For schools, the small amount allocated seems to have quite big effects. The information collected through postal surveys, interviews, discussions, and workshops provides examples of the content and forms of internationalisation in school education: thematic areas, mobility, professional development for academic staff, etc. In moving from individual initiatives and impacts to institutional involvement and a more longer term approach, it is valid to ask what qualitative assessment is made of the effects and whether or not outcomes are disseminated more broadly in the system. The investigations carried out for the global evaluation suggest that no national education system has tested these reported impacts against hard criteria. At this stage it is difficult to assess the effects of SOCRATES on national systems and whether or not it is viewed and used as a tool for internationalising school education. Some examples were found, but, overall, it would be difficult to reply to the question about the aim of internationalising education at system level. Schools, on the other hand, provide plenty of answers but they also express the need for more support in defining what they want to do, less bureaucracy and more assessment of the results and outcomes they have produced. In the coming years, SOCRATES will continue to contribute to a `thousand flowers blooming'. For many schools in Europe it may be the only regular, available source of funds for activities which link them to those in other countries. However, there is a clear need for organised assessments at national level and reflection on a framework for developing (or not) international policies for school education. This necessitates establishing mechanisms for collecting and analysing information and outcomes and for reflection on the processes established and the product. More dissemination about achievements, further testing of products (e.g. courses), concrete support for participation in the form of release for teachers, complementary finances, etc. could all contribute to a process of consultation working towards formulating aims and means of internationalising school education. REFERENCES DELOITTE & TOUCHE (2000) Evaluation of European School Partnerships under COMENIUS Action 1 and LINGUA Action E (Brussels) mimeo. EUROPEAN AGENCY FOR DEVELOPMENT IN SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION (2000) External Evaluation of SOCRATES, Participation of People with Disabilities. Prepared and edited by Lucien Bertrand, Sip Jan Pijl and Amanda Watkins, mimeo.

13 Jean Gordon 419 GLASGOW SCHOOL TRAVEL ASSOCIATION (1939) Visit to Dinard, France 1st July till 13th July KRISTENSEN, S. Developing trans-national placements as a didactic tool, Vocational Training, no. 23, CEDEFOP. SOGAARD, J. (2000) The Danish Perspective, in: Internationalising Vocational Education and Training, ACIU, May 2000, Copenhagen. TEICHLER, U. (1998) Towards a European University, in: P. BAGGEN, A. TELLINGS & W. VAN HAAFTEN (Eds) The University and the Knowledge Society (Concorde Publishing House). TEICHLER, U., GORDON, J. & MAIWORM, F. (2000) SOCRATES 2000 Evaluation Study. Study for the European Commission.

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