DiPaola, M. & Hoy, W. K. (2004). Organizational citizenship of faculty and achievement of high school students. The High School Journal.
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1 Goddard, R. G., Hoy, W. K., & Woolfolk Hoy, A. (2004). Collective efficacy: Theoretical development, empirical evidence, and future directions. Educational Researchers, 33, The purpose of this inquiry is to advance awareness about collective efficacy beliefs and develop a conceptual model to explain the formation and influence of perceived collective efficacy in schools. Researchers measured a school s sense of collective efficacy as an aggregate of teachers group-referent efficacy perceptions and also as the degree of agreement around the mean (variance measures were employed to estimate the amount of within-school variability among faculty perceptions of collective efficacy). They tested the multilevel relationship between teacher and collective efficacy beliefs by using data collected from elementary teachers in a large Midwestern school district. Research supported the hypothesis that when teachers have the opportunity to influence instructionally relevant school decisions, collective conditions encourage teachers to exercise organization agency. Findings also support that collective efficacy beliefs foster commitment to school goals and gains in student achievement. Researchers believe that the study of collective efficacy beliefs can provide an opportunity to understand organization culture and its influence on participants and group outcomes in new ways that hold promise for deeper theoretical understanding and practical knowledge concerning the improved function of organized activity, particularly schooling. DiPaola, M. & Hoy, W. K. (2004). Organizational citizenship of faculty and achievement of high school students. The High School Journal. The purpose of this study is to review the concept of organizational citizenship behavior, then apply the concept to schools; and finally, to develop and test a set of hypotheses linking organizational citizenship behavior with student achievement. The three major variables of this study are organizational citizenship behavior, student achievement and socioeconomic status. The researchers hypothesize that faculty organizational citizenship behavior is positively associated with student achievement in both mathematics and reading. An organizational citizenship behavior scale (OCBSS) was administered to teachers in each school. The scales consisted of 15 Likert items with a 4-point response scale. The sample consisted of 97 high schools in Ohio. The organizational citizenship-achievement hypothesis was supported by this study. Faculty organizational citizenship of a school is an important factor in the level of student achievement in schools. Faculty organizational citizenship has a significant independent effect on school student achievement in addition to the effect of SES on achievement. Further research can use this study to investigate how organizational citizenship is related to the development of faculty trust in colleagues, in parents, in students, and in the principal.
2 Sinden, J. E., Hoy, W. K., & Sweetland, S. R. (2004). An analysis of enabling school structure: Theoretical, empirical, and research considerations. Journal of Educational Administration, 42, The purpose of this study is threefold: first, to describe conceptually school structure that enables schooling rather than hinder it; second, to identify high schools with such structures; and third, to study and describe the dynamics of enabling structures in terms of their formalization, centralization and functioning. The researchers objective is to provide thick, rich descriptions of enabling school structures. Six high schools that scored high on the enabling bureaucracy scale participated in the qualitative study and were analyzed in depth using semi-structured interviewing techniques. A total of twenty-seven interviews were conducted over a period of four months. The interview approach was standardized and open-ended; there were both structured and unstructured components. The questions were designed to gather perceptions of enabling and hindering administrative behaviors and structures. The data from the interviews were coded to identify behaviors, structures and themes. The data were supported by observations made throughout the schools before, during and after the interview sessions. Four main themes emerged: rules and procedures, structure and size, principal behaviors and teacher behaviors. The interviews of teachers and principals from the six schools supported the contention that bureaucratic structures can enhance the attitudes and efforts of the teaching staff. This study provides a rich assortment of recommendations, tentative generalizations and possibilities for further research. DiPaola M., Hoy, W.K., & Tarter C. J. (2004) Measuring Organizational Citizenship of Schools: The OCB Scale The purposes of this study were to reexamine the factor structure of the citizenship measure and its psychometric properties, to refine and develop a more parsimonious measure, to extend the measure from high schools to middle and elementary schools; and to test the factor structure, reliability, a validity of the refined scale in middle and elementary schools. The researchers developed five hypotheses that should be supported because each links organizational citizenship with a theoretically relevant property. H1. Collegial leadership of the principal is positively correlated with organizational citizenship. H2. Teacher professional is positively correlated with organizational citizenship. H3. The academic press of a school is positively correlated with organizational citizenship. H4. School mindfulness is positively correlated with organizational citizenship. H5. School effectiveness, as perceived by teachers, is positively correlated to organizational citizenship.
3 The researchers performed a factor analysis of the OCB, assessed it reliability and checked the predictive validity; the same five hypotheses examined in the middle schools were tested again with elementary schools. The sample was drawn for 109 elementary schools in a large southwestern state. The findings of the validity hypotheses were replicated; the five theoretically derived hypotheses were again supported, this time with elementary schools. The researchers assumed that the collegial leadership of the principal would cultivate a climate that would encourage organizational citizenship behaviors. That assumption was supported by the results of the correlational analysis. Organizational citizenship of a school is a key in promoting professionalism, academic excellence, mindfulness, supportive leadership of the principal and effectiveness. Further investigations in areas of inquiry would be the relationships between OCB and such system variables as supportive leader behavior, commitment, organizational justice, school size and morale. Tschannen-Moran, M. (2003). Fostering organizational citizenship: Transformational leadership and trust. In W.K. Hoy & C.G. Miskel, Studies in Leading and Organizing Schools (pp ). Information Age Publishing: Greenwich: CT. The purpose of this study was to discover if a link exists between transformational leadership and organizational citizenship in schools. The researchers hypothesize that transformational leaderships leads to positive organizational behavioral outcomes. Three Likert measurement surveys were used. The sample was 55 middle schools in a mid-atlantic state. The findings differed from what was expected based on the theory of transformational leadership. Based on the theoretical foundations of transformational leadership one would expect for transformational leadership behaviors to be strongly related to organizational citizenship behaviors among the followers. However, this was not the case. The relationship between transformational leadership behaviors of the principal and organizational citizenship among teachers was non-significant. Trust was related to citizenship where transformational leadership was not. This study can be used to develop further understanding of trust how it develops and is supported and/or repaired. Andrews, D. and M. Lewis. (2002). The experience of a professional community: teachers developing a new image of themselves and their workplace. Educational Research Vol. 44 No. 3 Winter This study builds on a previous study (Andrew and Lewis, 2000) and focuses on the experiences of a professional learning community through the IDEAS (Innovative Design for Enhancing Achievement in Schools) process. The intention of the research was to illuminate the experiences of a group of teachers as they engaged in a process of learning and development during a whole-school change process.
4 The researchers gathered data through a process of retrospective interviews and from focus group discussion observations field notes and documentation. The study sample was conducted in a secondary school of 400 students and 37 teachers located in a prosperous rural community in Southern Queensland, Australia. The outcome demonstrated that teachers in the group took on leadership roles in developing and making explicit a shared view of school-wide pedagogy. The IDEAS group s internal facilitator also demonstrated strategic leadership. Findings from this study support how an innovative process centered on classroom outcome developed into a professional learning community. This study also adds to the literature on wholeschool change, in particular, change that builds enhanced school outcomes by centering on the work of teachers operating as a professional learning community. This knowledge can serve as a model for developing new relationships and new understandings pertaining to teachers, students and their workplace setting. Sweetland, S. R., & Hoy, W. K. (2001). Varnishing the truth: Principals and teachers spinning reality. Journal of Educational Administration, 39, The purpose of this research is twofold: first, to conceptualize the nature of deception through truth spinning and varnishing, and second, to operationalize the concept and test the measure for its reliability and validity as well as the relationship with role conflict, powerlessness, and trust. The researchers hypothesized that the greater the role conflict in a school, the more spinning of the truth in the school. The greater the spinning of truth in schools, the stronger the sense of powerlessness among teachers in school. In addition, the more principals are perceived as spinning the truth, the more teachers themselves engage in truth spinning, and finally, the more truth spinning in a school, the lower the level of trust among teachers. Two studies were conducted: the first one looked at responses given by sixty-one teachers currently teaching in the Ohio pubic school system. A set of twenty-six Likert items was generated. This first exploratory analysis led to the tentative conclusion that there were two reliable measures of truth spinning- one describing teacher behavior and the other principal actions. In the second study one hundred sixteen schools were represented in a sample of one teacher from each school. They were from five different states: Ohio, Michigan, New Jersey, Virginia, and New York. The two factors identified were the same as those found in the first study, principal spin and teacher spin. The researchers concluded that what seems clear is that truth spinning is a potential negative force in any attempt at authentic behavior. Thus, to the extent that such outcomes as authenticity, trust, openness, and innovation are desired, understanding the roots and consequences of truth spinning are essential.
5 Hoy, W. K., & Sweetland, S. R. (2001). Designing better schools: The meaning and nature of enabling school structure. Educational Administration Quarterly, 37, A study was conducted based on developing and testing the construct termed enabling structure as a means of reconciling the opposing perspectives of formal structures creating alienation or creating satisfaction. The researchers generated three hypotheses to relate enabling school structures with significant school outcomes: (1) the more enabling the bureaucratic structure of the school, the greater the extent of faculty trust in the principal; (2) the more enabling the bureaucratic structure of the school, the less the degree of truth spinning in school; and (3) the more enabling the bureaucratic structure of the school, the less the extent of role conflict in the school. Data was collected from teachers in 97 high schools with staff of 15 or more faculty members representing the entire range of socioeconomic status and all diverse geographic areas of Ohio. All three hypotheses were supported from the study using correlational analysis of the relationships. The researchers concluded that using an enabling school concept could be the basis for further research to enhance and enrich the enabling school structure concept, which is essential to developing effective learning organizations and to creating enabling knowledge. Tschannen-Moran, M. (2001). Collaboration and the need for trust. Journal of Educational Administration, 39 (4), The purpose of this study is to use the empirical evidence connecting collaboration to trust and apply it to the context of schools. The authors proposed the hypotheses that trust influences the level of collaboration of relationship in schools. The research was conducted using 2 six-point Likert response instruments. Trust and collaboration were measured in three constituent groups and two levels of decisionmaking: 1. collaboration between the principal and teachers on school-level decisions; 2. collaboration with parents on school-level decisions ;and 3. collaboration with teacher colleagues on classroom-level decisions. Faculty trust was measured by three corresponding groups trust in the principal, in colleagues and in clients (students and parents). Data were collected from 45 elementary schools in a large urban district in the Midwest. Researchers found a canonical correlation supported the importance of trust in predicting the overall level of collaboration within a school. The researchers concluded that trust is important in building and nurturing collaborative relationships. This study can be used to develop greater understanding of trust in establishing collaborative relationships.
6 Tschannen-Moran, M & Woolfolk Hoy, A. (2001). Teacher efficacy: Capturing an elusive construct. Teaching and Teacher Education, 17, The purpose of this study was to explore issues related to the measurement of teacher efficacy and to propose a new measure. A new measure, named the Ohio State teacher efficacy scale (OSTES), was examined in three separate studies. The measurement was tested on a sample of 224 participants, including 146 preservice teachers, and 78 in-service teachers. All were taking classes at the Ohio State University. The results of these analyses indicated that the OSTES could be considered reasonably valid and reliable. With either 24 or 12 items, it is of reasonable length and proves to be a useful tool for researchers interested in exploring construct of teacher efficacy. Hoy, W. K., & Sweetland, S. R. (2000). Bureaucracies that work: Enabling not coercive. Journal of School Leadership, 10, The purpose of this research was twofold: first, to reconcile the two theoretically opposing positions: bureaucracy alienates and fosters dissatisfaction and bureaucracy provides needed guidance and helps individuals feel and be more effective; and second, to develop and test empirically a new construct termed enabling bureaucracy. The researchers proposed four hypotheses: two to validate that enabling bureaucracy makes teachers less dependent on superiors and rules and two to further validate the measurement of enabling bureaucracy by predicting greater extent of collegial trust and less sense of powerlessness among teachers. Two studies were done using Likert items with the first study focusing on currently working public school teachers in Ohio and the second study focusing on 116 teachers who were graduate students representing five states. The results supported the predictions of the four hypotheses that enabling structures are negatively related to teacher dependence on superiors and rules and that collegial trust and teacher sense of powerlessness were related to enabling bureaucracy and the more enabling the bureaucracy, the less the sense of powerlessness among teachers. The researchers concluded that this study can be used as a beginning inquiry into identifying enabling and hindering structures in schools, thus leading to suggestions of strategies which school staff can implement to create enabling schools. This research can form a base to support the significant effects of teachers beliefs in their capabilities being taken seriously. It could provoke significant changes in the way teachers are prepared and supported in their early years in the profession.
7 DiPaola, M. F. & Tschannen-Moran, M. (2001). Organizational citizenship behavior in schools and its relationship to school climate. Journal of School Leadership, The purpose of this study was to develop a new measure of organization citizenship behavior (OCB) specific to K-12 school settings and begin the exploration of how this construct functions in schools by examining the relationship between school climate and organizational citizenship behavior. The researchers hypothesize a positive relationship between OCB and school climate; that is, the more positive the school climate, the greater the incidents of organizational citizenship behaviors. Two separate studies were conducted to test the stability and validity of the organization citizenship measure as well as the relationship of OBC and school climate. The Organizational Citizenship Behavior in Schools Scale (OCBSS) was finalized and then field-tested in 18 public schools. The School Climate Index (SCI) was used to assess school climate in this study. Half of the faculty randomly received one survey form and the other half received a different survey. The sample in Study I was 664 teachers in 42 public elementary, middle and high schools in Ohio and Virginia. The sample in Study II was 1,210 teachers and 97 public high schools across Ohio. The findings demonstrated that the pervasive climate of a school is strongly related to organizational citizenship behaviors. In both studies the researchers found that where the principal has a more collegial leadership style, OCB was more evident. The findings support the contention that the type of organizational setting determines what constitutes OCB. In addition, the evidence supports a strong link between OCB and school climate. The researchers successfully developed a new measure of organizational citizenship behavior specific to K-12 school settings. This study introduced a new construct, organizational citizenship behavior to K-12 schools that helps explain the social processes of effective schools. This construct should be examined in relationship to other identified variables common to effective schools. Hoy, W. K., & Tarter, J. C. (1996) Toward a contingency theory of decision making. Journal of Educational Administration, 36, 3 The researchers grapple with the question of matching decision strategies to situations. They define decision making as the process of formulating a strategy beginning with a problem, developing a plan to solve the problem, and moving through the implementation and appraisal of results. First, they describe six contemporary decision-making models and compare them to find the strengths and weaknesses. Then the researchers match the appropriate decision techniques with different situations and conclude with a series of ten propositions that provide tentative answers. According to the researchers, collaboration and participation are important elements in making quality decisions. The researchers concluded that decision-making theories, like most explanations in the social sciences, are probabilistic not deterministic, and that one should never discard the reflective thinking. The researchers surmise that we can improve the odds of success through thoughtful decision-making, but we are never assured of the outcomes.
8 Blasé, Joseph and J. Blasé. (2000) Effective instructional leadership: Teachers perspectives on how principals promote teaching and learning in schools. Journal of Educational Administration, Vol. 38 No The purpose of this study was to develop the first comprehensive empirical report of the experiences of teachers as reported by teachers in effective instructionally oriented interactions. The study produced categories and subcategories for principal characteristics (e.g. strategies, behaviors) teachers identified with effective instructional leadership and ineffective instructional leadership, as well as impacts on teaching (i.e. teachers thoughts, behaviors, and feelings related to teaching and effectiveness of each leadership characteristic. An open-ended questionnaire, the Inventory of Strategies Used by Principals to Influence Classroom Teaching (ISUPICT) was developed to investigate the question. Data were collected from 809 teachers. Each participant contributed about 500 words, which were coded according to guidelines from inductive-exploratory research and comparative analysis. The findings suggest that effective instructional leadership is embedded in school culture; it is expected and routinely delivered. The findings also emphasize that effective instructional leadership integrates collaboration, peer coaching, inquiry, collegial study groups, and reflective discussion. This study can further exam effective instructional leadership by incorporating other factors such gender experiences, political factors, goals resources and motivations, strategies and settings. Hoy, W. K., & Sweetland, S. R. (2000). Bureaucracies that work: Enabling not coercive. Journal of School Leadership, 10, The purpose of this research was twofold: first, to reconcile the two theoretically opposing positions: bureaucracy alienates and fosters dissatisfaction and bureaucracy provides needed guidance and helps individuals feel and be more effective; and second, to develop and test empirically a new construct termed enabling bureaucracy. The researchers proposed four hypotheses: two to validate that enabling bureaucracy makes teachers less dependent on superiors and rules and two to further validate the measurement of enabling bureaucracy by predicting greater extent of collegial trust and less sense of powerlessness among teachers. Two studies were done using Likert items with the first study focusing on currently working public school teachers in Ohio and the second study focusing on 116 teachers who were graduate students representing five states. The results supported the predictions of the four hypotheses that enabling structures are negatively related to teacher dependence on superiors and rules and that collegial trust and teacher sense of powerlessness were related to enabling bureaucracy and the more enabling the bureaucracy, the less the sense of powerlessness among teachers. The researchers concluded that this study could be used as a beginning inquiry into identifying enabling and hindering structures in schools, thus leading to suggestions of strategies, which school staff can implement to create enabling schools.
9 Tschannen-Moran, M., & Hoy, W. K. (2000). A multidisciplinary analysis of the nature, meaning, and measurement of trust. Review of Educational Research, 70, This multidisciplinary review draws on both theoretical and empirical literature on trust as it relates to relationships within schools. The researchers explored the nature and meaning of trust, and examined the dynamics of trust to synthesize the research on trust as it relates to organizational processes such as communication, climate and efficacy. The analysis of the definitions led the researchers to a multidimensional definition of trust: Trust is one party s willingness to be vulnerable to another party based on the confidence that the latter party is (a) benevolent, (b) reliable, (c) competent, (d) honest, and (e) open. These researchers concluded that trust is a critical factor to be considered in school improvement and effectiveness. At all levels of the organization, trust facilitates productivity, and its absence impedes progress. Trust is required for many of the reforms taking shape in American schools and to develop teacher empowerment. The researchers summarized that the four decades upon which this review is based forms a solid conceptual and empirical foundation for continuing the quest to understand trust in schools. Sweetland, S. R., & Hoy, W. K. (2000). School characteristics: Toward an organizational model of student achievement. Educational Administration Quarterly, 5, The primary purpose of this research is to explore the relationship between school climate and teacher empowerment and to examine the relationships between teacher empowerment, student achievement and school effectiveness. Four basic dimensions of school climate are proposed: collegial leadership, teacher professionalism, academic press, and environmental press. The researchers postulate that healthy and open interpersonal relations should generally facilitate the authentic empowerment of teachers. The stronger the degree of collegial leadership demonstrated by the principal, the greater the extent of teacher empowerment. Eight hypotheses provided the guides for the empirical phase of the study. H1. The stronger the degree of collegial leadership demonstrated by the principal, the greater the extent of teacher empowerment. H2. The stronger the teacher professionalism of a school, the greater the degree of teacher empowerment. H3. The greater the academic press of the school climate, the higher the level of teacher empowerment. H4. There will be no relationship between the level of environment press and the degree of empowerment. H5. Four dimensions of organizational climate (collegial leadership, teacher professionalism, academic press, and environmental press) combine to produce a linear combination that predicts teacher empowerment. H6. The greater the teacher empowerment in schools, the higher the degree of perceived school effectiveness.
10 H7. The greater the teacher empowerment in schools, the higher the level of student mathematics achievement in schools. H8. The greater the teacher empowerment in schools, the higher the level of student reading achievement in schools. Climate data were collected from all teachers at regularly scheduled faculty meetings. Teachers at the meeting were divided into random groups, with one group responding to the OHI-RM and another to the OCDQ-RM. The effectiveness and teacher empowerment indices were administered to another independent, random group of teachers at each school. A sample of 86 New Jersey middle schools, which included responses from 2,741 teachers, was used to test the hypotheses of this study. The data suggests that teacher empowerment in classroom and instructional decisions can be an important factor enhancing organizational effectiveness and student performance. The results support the theoretical assumptions that undergrid it. Teacher empowerment is a multidimensional concept and calls for the study and measure of other empowerment domains. Tschannen-Moran, M., & Hoy, W. K. (1998). Trust in schools: a conceptual and empirical analysis. Journal of Educational Administration, 36, 4, This study consisted of three parts: exploring the meaning and conceptual understanding of trust; measuring two dimensions of trust and the consequences of climate in principal and teacher behavior in developing trust; and outlining a research program for studying trust in schools. In particular, two aspects of faculty trust are defined as follows: trust in the principal and trust in colleagues. The research was based on analyzing a sample of 86 middle schools, which included responses from 2,741 teachers. Trust scales, a six point scale with Likert items from strongly agree to strongly disagree were used. The data was used to examine the relationships in this study. The results of this exploratory study in middle schools are consistent with several earlier studies that examined trust in the principal and trust in colleagues. Trust in the principal is determined primarily by the behavior of the principal. Faculty trust in colleagues is basically determined by the behavior of teachers in relation to one another. The researchers concluded that future research in the concepts of parental trust in teachers and administrators as well as student trust in teachers and in administrators could be the basis for further studies. Blasé, Joseph and J. Blasé. ( 1997) The micropolitical orientation of facilitative school principals and its effects on teachers sense of empowerment. Journal of Educational Administration, Vol. 35 No. 2, This article presents empirically grounded descriptive and conceptual knowledge about the micropolitical orientation of facilitative school-based leadership and its effects on teacher empowerment. The researchers hypothesize that facilitative leadership by
11 school principals and shared decision making at the school level enhance teacher empowerment. The Inventory of Principals Characteristics that Contribute to Teacher Empowerment (IPCCTE), an open-ended questionnaire, was constructed to collect personal meanings on the study topic. The IPCCTE was administered to a total of 285 teachers in a select group of 11 schools with exemplary facilitative principals. The study supports that facilitative school leadership contributes significantly to teachers overall sense of empowerment in shared governance schools. Facilitative leadership, teacher empowerment and shared governance are complex phenomena for which there is little available empirical research and practical experience. This article can provide university educators with a basis for understanding and discussing some dimensions of principal leadership and empowerment in schools. Hoy, W. K., & Tarter, J. C. (1996) Toward a contingency theory of decision making. Journal of Educational Administration, 36, 3 The researchers grapple with the question of matching decision strategies to situations to define decision making as the process of formulating a strategy beginning with a problem, developing a plan to solve the problem, and moving through the implementation and appraisal of results. The researchers describe six contemporary decision-making models and compare them to find the strengths and weaknesses. Then they match the appropriate decision techniques with different situations and conclude with a series of ten propositions that provide tentative answers. According to the researchers, collaboration and participation are important elements in making quality decisions. The researchers concluded that decision-making theories, like most explanations in the social sciences, are probabilistic not deterministic, and that one should never discard the reflective thinking. The researchers surmise that we can improve the odds of success through thoughtful decision-making, but we are never assured of the outcomes. Cheong Cheng, Yin. (1994) Teacher Leadership Style: A classroom-level study. Journal of Educational Administration, Vol. 32 No The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship of the teacher leadership style to use of power, student affective performance, and social climate, and perception of physical environment. The researchers investigated how the classroom teacher leadership style is related to students educational attitudes and classroom climate. The Data was measured with a Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ) [10] developed by researcher named Ho. The sample was taken from an ongoing large scale research project entitle Education Quality in Hong Kong Primary Schools: Indicators and Organizational Determinants. There were 678 classes of mainly grade 6 students in 190 sampled primary schools involved in this study. The total number of sample students was about 21,650. This study found that class master s leadership and use of power are interrelated in a process of leading a class of students.
12 The findings suggest that in developing teacher leadership in classrooms, emphasis should be put on developing their expert power and personal power and avoiding use of coercive power. The findings reinforce the possibility of generalization of ideas and theories developed from adult organizations to a content of classrooms in primary schools. Further theoretical and empirical explorations in classroom organizational behavior and generalization of organizational theory to classroom settings are strongly recommended.
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A. What is research? Research = the process of finding solutions to a problem after a thorough study and analysis (Sekaran, 2006). Research = systematic inquiry that provides information to guide decision
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