Liking or Disliking the Teacher: Student Motivation, Engagement and Achievement

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1 Liking or Disliking the Teacher: Student Motivation, Engagement and Achievement Gregory P. Montalvo and Eric A. Mansfield Western Illinois University, Macomb, IL, USA Raymond B. Miller The University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK, USA The current study combines multiple lines of research on student/teacher relationships, to identify characteristics of liked teachers and examine the impact of liking or disliking the teacher on student learning and motivation. The study compared motivation data related to liked and disliked teachers from 125 students. Participants completed two versions of a motivation survey assessing their goals, perceived ability, effort and persistence. The findings suggest that when students like a teacher they experience motivational and achievement benefits. doi: /eri406.0 Keywords: studentteacher relationships, student achievement, motivation There is little doubt that teachers influence student motivation and achievement. After all, teachers define the tasks that students must complete, provide feedback and define at least some of the consequences for completing tasks. One question often asked is why do some students put forth more effort and persist on academic tasks for one teacher, but not for another? Contemporary theories of motivation suggest that the varying levels of effort and persistence observed in different classes and subsequent achievement are, in part, due to internal purposes students have for doing academic activities (goals), and their perceived ability (Maehr, 1984; Pajares, 1996; Urdan & Maehr, 1995). The current study is concerned with the potential effect teachers have on students goals, perceived ability, and subsequent effort and persistence in different classes. More specifically, the study examines how liking or disliking the teacher is related to student motivation and performance in school. Recent qualitative research indicates that high school aged children differentiate between various teachers based on teacher characteristics that benefit the student (Montalvo, 1995; Montalvo & Roedel, 1995; Phelan et al., 1992). Phelan and her colleagues (1992) studied 54 high school students for over a year to identify factors that affect students engagement with school and learning. In the study, students often expressed the importance of having a caring and approachable teacher who provides written feedback, one-on-one assistance and who is interested in students lives outside of school. Phelan and her colleagues note that caring teachers are in a better position than noncaring teachers to maintain student interest and cooperation in school, and /07/ $20.00/ G.P. Montalvo et al. EVALUATION AND RESEARCH IN EDUCATION Vol. 20, No. 3,

2 Student Motivation and Engagement 145 that a student s perception of the teacher as caring or uncaring influences their level of engagement in school and their persistence in seeking help. In similar research, Montalvo and Roedel (1995) and Montalvo (1995) conducted a series of focus groups and interviews with high school students to understand the concept pleasing the teacher. As part of the study, they investigated what teachers do that lead students to want to please them and how students pleasing behaviour changes for different teachers. The findings indicated that many students try to please their teachers and use a variety of methods in their attempts to please. Montalvo and Roedel found that teachers whom students wanted to please were reported to have: (1) gone out of their way to help, (2) provided positive, confidence-building feedback, (3) done unnecessary things to be nice, (4) respected and trusted students and (5) spaced the workload so that students did not feel overwhelmed. The researchers also found that high school students indicate that peers behaved similarly for teachers they like and teachers they dislike, but that effort and quality of work changed. When students like the teacher their effort and quality of work improves. In contrast, when they dislike the teacher their effort and quality of work lessens. One limitation of the above-mentioned studies is the treatment of academic achievement. The work by Phelan et al. (1992), as well as the work by Montalvo and Roedel (1995), fails to address a relationship between liking the teacher and academic achievement. At best, the studies findings suggest that the quality of work for high and low achieving students is different when the student perceives the teacher to be caring (Phelan et al., 1992). However, quality of work is not clearly defined in either study. Furthermore, the studies do not address the relationship between achievement and liking or disliking the teacher. The current study seeks to extend the previous qualitative findings through a quantitative examination of liking or disliking the teacher and its relationship between student effort, persistence and achievement. If previous research is correct, we expect that students self-reported levels of effort and persistence will be higher for liked teachers as compared to disliked teachers. In turn, students academic achievement will be higher for teachers that students like as compared to teachers they dislike. Classroom Goals and Student Confidence In addition to extending the qualitative findings of previous research regarding students effort, persistence and achievement, the current study examines the potential differences in students motivational goals and confidence for teachers they like or dislike. In recent years, a number of motivation theorists have suggested that teachers can improve student achievement by creating environments that support learning, with an emphasis on helping students to develop learning goals as opposed to performance goals (Ames, 1992; Maehr & Midgley, 1991; Newman, 2002). This idea stems from past research, which outlines the effects of learning and performance goals (Ames & Archer, 1988; Dweck, 1986; Dweck & Leggett, 1988). When students adopt a learning goal-orientation, they focus on acquiring new knowledge and skills or trying to understand something new.

3 146 Evaluation and Research in Education These students use adaptive learning strategies, seek help when needed, persist when a task becomes difficult, and believe their efforts will assist their learning. In contrast, when students adopt a performance goal-orientation, they are concerned with gaining favourable judgements of their competence or avoiding unfavourable judgements. Each task is viewed as a test of their capabilities, thus creating an opportunity to fail. Those students who encounter repeated failure eventually develop learned helplessness. To protect a sense of self-esteem or self-worth (Covington, 1992), students often employ surface learning strategies (guessing, memorising and rehearsing information) and put forth minimal effort. Classroom environments that emphasise learning goals encourage students to master individual tasks, reinforce the idea that making errors is a normal part of the learning process and support students learning and confidence. Similarly, the research on liked teachers shows them to be encouraging of students and supportive of student learning by providing confidence-building feedback (Montalvo, 1995; Montalvo & Roedel, 1995; Phelan et al., 1992). These findings suggest that liked teachers create an atmosphere more consistent with a learning-oriented environment, one in which learning goals and confidence are supported by the teacher. Thus, we hypothesise that students will report higher levels of learning goals and perceived ability in classes taught by a teacher they like, and lower levels of learning goals and perceived ability in classes taught by teachers they dislike. Yet another body of research suggests that student engagement (e.g. effort and persistence) in school learning tasks is related to perceived instrumentality. Perceived instrumentality may be defined as students perceptions of a school task as being instrumental to attaining personally valued future goals (Miller & Brickman, 2004). Several studies indicate that perceived instrumentality scores have a moderate positive correlation with students learning goal scores (Brickman & Miller, 2001; DeBacker & Nelson, 1999; Greene et al., 1999; Miller et al., 1996); effort and persistence (Brickman & Miller, 1998, 2001; DeBacker & Nelson, 1999; DeVolder & Lens, 1982; Greene et al., 1999); and achievement/grades (Brickman & Miller, 1998, 2001; DeBacker & Nelson, 1999; DeVolder & Lens, 1982; Greene et al., 1999; Miller et al., 1996; Raynor, 1970; Schutz, 1997; Schutz & Lanehart, 1994). Research by Greene et al. (2004) tested a causal model in which three teacher-related variables, perceptions of classroom tasks as meaningful and motivating, perceptions of classrooms being autonomy supportive and perceptions of evaluation being mastery-oriented, were hypothesised to be causally related to students perceptions of their course work being instrumental to their future goals. The path analysis revealed that student perceptions that the teacher used meaningful and motivating tasks had a significant direct effect on their perceptions of course instrumentality, while both perceived autonomy support and mastery-oriented evaluations had indirect influences through their impact on student self-efficacy. Thus, in the present study we examined whether students perceptions of the instrumentality of their schoolwork for attaining their personally valued future goals were related to their reports of liking or disliking their teachers. We expect that liked teachers create a condition similar to those found in Greene et al. (2004),

4 Student Motivation and Engagement 147 thus students perceived instrumentality scores should be higher in classes where they like the teacher. Method Participants One hundred and seventy-two students from a public school district in the south central USA participated in the study. The school was one of three high schools (Grades 1012) which primarily served middle-income families for a population of about 92,000. Of the 172 participants, 47 were dropped from the study. Thirty-six did not complete both surveys or did not follow instructions, three used fake names and eight were identified as multivariate outliers during data screening (Mahalanobis Distance 73.40, pb0.001). The remaining 125 participants included 39 in Grade 10, 58 in Grade 11 and 28 in Grade 12. There were 55 males and 70 females. The ethnic makeup consisted of 61 Caucasians, 27 African Americans, 12 Hispanics, 8 Native Americans and 8 Asian Americans. Six students indicated they were from backgrounds not listed on the survey. The mean GPA for the sample was 3.2 on a five-point scale. Procedures Data collection occurred three weeks before the end of the fall semester to allow students time to become acclimated to their classroom environments. Those who returned signed parent consent forms and completed informed consent forms participated in the study. Recognising the ethical concerns in creating an experiment in which some students were assigned to a warm, caring, supportive, approachable teacher and other students to a non-caring, non-supportive, unapproachable teacher, participants were asked to reflect on current teachers to whom they were already assigned. This was accomplished by administering two versions of The Survey on High School Student Motivation. The instructions on one version asked participants to think of a current teacher they liked a lot who teaches an academic subject, and to complete the instrument as it relates to that teacher and the class he/she teaches. The instructions on the other survey asked participants to think of a current teacher they disliked a lot who teaches an academic subject, and complete the survey as it relates to that teacher and the class he/she teaches. To maintain teacher anonymity, participants were asked for only the titles of the classes taught by each teacher so that semester grades could be matched to individual surveys. To control for order of presentation effects, the instruments were counterbalanced so that half of the participants completed the liking the teacher survey first, while the other half completed the disliking the teacher survey first. In addition, the teachers were allowed to remain in the classroom while students completed the two surveys. Two months after the surveys were administered semester grades were collected. Measures Two versions of The Survey on High School Student Motivation were developed to explore the construct pleasing the teacher in classes where

5 148 Evaluation and Research in Education students like and dislike the teacher. The instruments were identical and differed only in the instructions, which directed participants to complete the surveys as they related to liked and disliked teachers. The instrument included subscales for learning goals, performance goals, perceived instrumentality (college admissions and school recognition goals), as well as measures of perceived ability, effort, persistence and prior interest. The learning and performance goal items, as well as the perceived ability, persistence and effort items were adapted from The Attitude Toward Mathematics Survey (Greene & Miller, 1996). The perceived instrumentality items were adapted from a survey used by Miller et al. (1995) to examine future consequences for college and receiving school recognition. A five-point Likert-type format anchored with Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree was used for all items except effort. The effort item, which asked students to rate their typical amount of effort for this teacher as compared to classes taught by other teachers, was anchored with Extremely High and Extremely Low (all of the items used in the two versions of The Survey on High School Student Motivation are found in the Appendix). Achievement was measured using students semester grades for the classes they identified in the two surveys. Their teachers reported grades from F to A. Working with the reported information, the students grades were coded with F 1, D 2, C 3, C 4, B 5, B 6, A 7 and A 8. Results The research on student motivation cited in the literature review used qualitative and quantitative methods with the quantitative research applying correlational designs. The current study, being comparative by design, examines students beliefs related to liking or disliking the teacher and uses two lengthy surveys. Because of this, it was necessary to reduce the number of items used in measuring the motivational goal variables. As a consequence of reducing the number of items, it was first necessary to perform a confirmatory factor analysis to provide validity evidence for the goal structures. The confirmatory factor analysis for the liking and disliking responses are reported first, followed by subscale reliabilities, descriptive statistics and finally a comparison of means for the two sets of responses. Motivation subscales The instruments included scales to measure students effort, persistence, goals (learning and performance goals), perceived instrumentality (college admissions and school recognition) and perceived ability. Confirmatory factor analyses were conducted to test the factor validity of the four goal subscales on The Survey on High Student Motivation. Fourteen items were used to measure four goal factors (F1 Learning goal; F2 Performance goals; F3 Perceived instrumentality for college admissions; and F4 Perceived instrumentality for school recognition). Results from a pilot study (Montalvo, 1997) and work by Miller et al. (1995) were used to establish initial model specifications. The top section of Table 1 shows the pilot

6 Student Motivation and Engagement 149 Table 1 Subscale intercorrelations used for model specification Subscales 1. Learning 2. Performance** 0.36*/ Perceived Instrumentality Admission to College 4. Perceived Instrumentality School Recognition Liking/disliking * 0.20* 0.24* 0.41* Unknown Number on left: Correlation from Pilot Study (Montalvo, 1997) (N55, *pb0.05). Number on right: Correlation from Miller et al. (1995) (N153, *pb0.01) study subscale intercorrelations for the learning and performance goals on the liking and disliking versions of the instrument. The bottom section of Table 1 shows the intercorrelations related to college admission and school recognition reported by Miller et al. (1995). Pairs of variables with significant Pearson product moment correlations were allowed to covary in the initial model specification. Values were not entered for the relationship between perceived instrumentality for college and school recognition. This information was not reported by Miller and his colleagues (1995), therefore the covariance for these two subscales were set to zero for initial model tests. Models for both the liking and disliking instruments shared the following specifications across four factors: (1) four items for learning goals, (2) four items for performance goals, (3) three items for college admissions and (4) three items for school recognition. The two models differed only with regard to learning and performance goals. Findings from the pilot study (Montalvo, 1997), which was conducted to assist with model specification, indicate that learning and performance goals only have a significant correlation when students dislike the teacher. For this reason, learning and performance goals were set to covary in the model specifications for the disliking survey data. Because the pilot study findings indicated a nonsignificant correlation between learning and performance goals in the liking survey data, the covariance for them was set to zero in model specifications. The two confirmatory factor analyses were conducted using a maximum likelihood method in Amos. In anticipation that two models might emerge from the different data sets, the following procedures were used: (1) Analyse both data sets, examining their goodness of fit summaries; (2) If both tests produced a x 2 degrees of freedom ratio (2/df) less than 2.0 and a comparative fit index (CFI) greater than 0.90, then the models would be considered acceptable; (3) If one or both of the models did not meet the above criteria, the Modification Indexes (MI) would be examined to identify modifications that could be made to improve both models; (4) If no common modifications were apparent, then both MI would be examined for logical modifications that could be made to both models to produce adequate model fits.

7 150 Evaluation and Research in Education Confirmatory factor analyses The initial test results showed a poor model fit for both data sets (Liking: 2/df 2.04, CFI 0.913; Disliking: 2/df 2.15, CFI 0.898). An examination of the modification indexes revealed possible dual loadings for two items. Item 3 of the Perceived Instrumentality for School Recognition subscale showed a dual loading with Perceived Instrumentality for College. Performance Goal Item 3 dual loaded with Perceived Instrumentality for School Recognition. Both items were dropped from the final models. These modifications yielded adequate model fit for both the liking (2/df 1.90, CFI 0.938) and disliking (2/df 1.92, CFI 0.935) models. The chi-square tests of independence were significant (Liking: 2 (66)797.9, pb0.001; Disliking: 2 (66)765.9, pb0.001). The chi-square tests for the final models compared to the independence models were also significant (Liking: 2 (50)95.2, N125, pb0.001; Disliking: 2 (49)94.1, N125, pb0.001). As a final assessment of model verification, the standardised residual covariances and item factor loadings were examined. Both were acceptable. The residual covariances were all below The final factor loadings were all above 0.64 (see Tables 2 and 3). Together, all tests indicated adequate model fit for both the liking and disliking data. Table 2 Standardised factor loadings for goals on the disliking survey Factor loadings Item F1 F2 F3 F4 I like to understand the material I study I like to understand complicated ideas I like learning interesting things I like to solve challenging problems I don t want other students to think I m not smart I don t want to be the only one who cannot do the work well I would be embarrassed if I could not do the work Good grades are important for college admissions or scholarships Doing well is necessary for admissions to college Getting into college is important to me If I do well I get praise or rewards from people at school. I get some reward or recognition from others at school for doing well

8 Student Motivation and Engagement 151 Table 3 Standardised factor loadings for goals on the liking survey Factor loadings Item F1 F2 F3 F4 I like to understand the material I study I like to understand complicated ideas I like learning interesting things I like to solve challenging problems I don t want other students to think I m not smart I don t want to be the only one who cannot do the work well I would be embarrassed if I could not do the work Good grades are important for college admissions or scholarships Doing well is necessary for admissions to college Getting into college is important to me If I do well I get praise or rewards from people at school. I get some reward or recognition from others at school for doing well Subscale reliabilities and descriptive statistics Internal consistency reliability coefficients were computed for the four goal variables, perceived ability and persistence. Cronbach alpha coefficients ranged from 0.74 to 0.90 for the subscales in the disliking data, and 0.74 to 0.88 for the subscales in the liking data. The subscale means, standard deviations and reliability coefficients are listed in Table 4. Correlations To hold alpha at the 0.05 significance level for the collection of correlations for each data set, significance was set at p using a Bonferroni adjustment (0.05/36). The correlation matrixes for the liking and disliking data sets revealed relatively similar patterns. The correlation matrixes for each data set are shown in Tables 5 and 6. As expected, learning goals and performance goals were not significantly related in the two data sets. The tables also show significant positive relationships among learning goals, perceived ability and persistence. These were also expected. Unexpectedly, the significant positive relationship between perceived ability and effort found in previous research (Miller et al., 1996) was only found in the disliking data, r (125) 36, pb Similarly, only in the disliking data were significant relationships observed with regard to

9 152 Evaluation and Research in Education Table 4 Means, standard deviations and alpha coefficients for motivation variables, effort, persistence and achievement Disliking Liking Subscale Means sd a Means sd a t-value h 2 Learning * 0.29 Performance Perceived Instr. College Perceived Instr. School * * 0.08 Perceived ability * 0.34 Persistence * 0.29 Effort * 0.24 Prior interest * 0.10 Achievement (semester grades) *pb0.005 for multiple t-tests * 0.43 Table 5 Subscale correlations of motivation variables, effort, persistence, prior-interest and achievement-disliking data Subscale Learning goal Performance goal 0.27 Perceived Instr. College Perceived Instr. School 0.32* * 0.30* 0.06 Perceived ability 0.50* Effort 0.36* 0.29* * Persistence 0.69* * 0.42* Prior interest 0.37* * Achievement (semester grades) * 0.28* semester grades. The disliking data produced a positive relationship between perceived ability and semester grades, r (125) 0.28, pb0.001; and a positive relationship between effort and semester grades, r (125) 0.28, pb

10 Student Motivation and Engagement 153 Table 6 Subscale correlations of motivation variables, effort, persistence, prior interest and achievement-liking data Subscale Learning goal Performance goal 0.18 Perceived Instr. College Perceived Instr. School 0.45* * 0.37* 0.13 Perceived ability 0.49* * 0.22 Effort 0.34* Persistence 0.56* * * 0.29* Prior interest 0.52* * * Achievement (semester grades) Mean differences: Liking and disliking the teacher A within-subjects multivariate analysis of variance was used to examine differences among variables within the liking and disliking the teacher data sets. Specifically, the test compared students grades, reported levels of effort, persistence and perceived ability, as well as their learning goal scores, performance goal scores, perceived instrumentality scores, and prior interest. The overall test of differences between variables in the liking and disliking data sets was significant, F(9,116) 15.96, pb Univariate dependent t-tests were next examined to further identify the significant differences between the liking and disliking data. Significant differences were observed in Achievement, t(124) 9.74, pb 0.001; Effort, t(124)6.38, pb0.001; Persistence, t(124)7.14, pb0.001; Learning goals, t(124) 7.24, pb 0.001; Perceived ability, t(124) 8.03, pb0.001; Perceived Instrumentality College, t(124)3.72, pb0.001; Perceived Instrumentality School Recognition, t(124) 3.37, pb 0.005; and Prior Interest, t(124) 3.85, pb The effect sizes for each univariate t-test were measured using h 2. The t-test results and effect size values can be found in Table 4. Discussion The current study sheds light on the potential impact that different teachers have on student motivation and achievement. The major supposition is that teachers who are perceived to be warm, caring and supportive have a positive effect on students (Montalvo, 1995; Montalvo & Roedel, 1995; Phelan et al., 1992). While asking students to think about teachers they like and dislike does not constitute an experimental procedure, we cannot think of any school that

11 154 Evaluation and Research in Education would allow students to be purposely assigned to a treatment condition where the teacher displays characteristics of a disliked teacher. Ironically, every year students are placed in classes where the teachers display disliked teacher characteristics. We believe asking students to think about teachers they like and dislike, while a limitation, allows us to examine the types of questions posed in the current study without creating an artificial setting. This limitation serves as a reminder of the difficulties faced by educational researchers. Findings from the current study supported the proposed research hypotheses regarding effort, persistence, achievement, learning goals, perceived instrumentality and perceived ability. Previous qualitative research (Montalvo, 1995; Montalvo & Roedel, 1995; Phelan et al., 1992) suggested that students level of effort and persistence will be higher for liked teachers as compared to disliked teachers. Our findings provide quantitative support for this relationship. Students reported having higher levels of effort and persistence in classes in which they liked the teacher. In addition, the current study provides evidence of the relationship between liking the teacher and academic achievement not addressed in the Phelan and Montalvo studies. In the current study, students earned higher grades in classes where they liked the teacher. As an extension to previous research on classroom goals (Brickman & Miller, 1998, 2001; DeBacker & Nelson, 1999; Greene et al., 1999, 2004; Miller & Brickman, 2004; Miller et al., 1996) we also predicted that students will report higher levels of learning goals, perceived instrumentality for schoolwork and perceived ability in classes taught by teachers they like. This too was supported. When students thought about teachers they liked, they reported higher levels of learning goals, perceptions of ability, perceptions of school being instrumental for both obtaining rewards and recognition at school and for attaining the goal of getting into college, than when they thought about teachers they disliked. Findings from the current study suggest that student motivation is different for liked and disliked teachers. We believe these differences emerge as a result of the classroom environment created by teachers. Previous research indicates that liked teachers create a classroom environment that emphasises learning, promotes mastery and supports students by providing confidence-building feedback (Montalvo, 1995; Montalvo & Roedel, 1995; Phelan et al., 1992). Based on the present findings, it appears that such an environment promotes student interest and cooperation, encourages them to adopt learning goals, see the value of school to attaining personally valued future goals and to persist when tasks become difficult; all of which improve student achievement. However, an alternative explanation for the current findings is that liked teachers respond better to individual students perceived needs, such as the need for support in learning, thus impacting the student s perception of the classroom environment, the goals the student adopts for the class, the student s perception of ability and subsequent achievement. One might also argue that a student s classroom performance early in the school year impacts the way a teacher interacts with the student, which in turn influences the student s perception of the classroom environment, motivation and

12 Student Motivation and Engagement 155 subsequent achievement. For example, when a student attends to the teacher s directions, turns in assignments promptly and appears to put forth effort in school, the teacher responds favourably to the student. What seems to be unclear is the causal link between liking the teacher, student motivation, and achievement. Future research may want to extend this work by examining models of prediction for liked and disliked teachers. It is possible that liking or disliking the teacher has differential effects on the ability of traditional motivation variables to predict student effort, persistence and achievement. In addition, we encourage researchers to explore the causal role of liking and disliking the teacher. The present study has shown liking and disliking to be related to important motivational outcomes and achievement; however, this was not an experimental design, nor was it a test of a hypothetical causal model. Future research should attempt to tease out the causal role of liking and disliking, if any, in the outcomes examined in the study. Also, research that provides insight into the causal order of liking and disliking the teacher, and student perceptions of the classroom environment is needed. Is it the students perceptions of the classroom environment that leads them to like or dislike their teachers, or does their liking or disliking of teachers influence their perceptions of the classroom environment? Furthermore, research should try to tease out the role of prior interest in liking the teacher and student motivation. Do students with higher levels of prior interest in a subject tend to like the teacher, or does prior interest serve as a precursor to a student liking the teacher? One approach to examining these questions may be to explore student/teacher relationships from the outset of the school year to better understand the causal interplay between individual student behaviour, teacher behaviour, motivation and achievement. Addressing these issues will help provide a foundation enabling educators to plan pre-service and in-service experiences that will help teachers create better relationships with students and classroom environments that support student learning. Correspondence Any correspondence should be directed to Gregory P. Montalvo, Western Illinois University, Horrabin Hall 115, 1 University Circle, Macomb, IL 61455, USA (gp-montalvo@wiu.edu). References Ames, C. (1992) Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology 84 (3), Ames, C. and Archer, J. (1988) Achievement goals in the classroom: Students learning strategies and motivation processes. Journal of Educational Psychology 80 (3), Brickman, S.J. and Miller, R.B. (1998) Valuing of Future Goals and Instrumentality as Predictors of Cognitive Engagement. Paper presented at the 6th Workshop on Achievement and Task Motivation, International Conference on Motivation, Thessaloniki, Greece, March. Brickman, S.J. and Miller, R.B. (2001) The impact of sociocultural knowledge on future goals and self-regulation. In D. McInerny and S. Van Etten (eds) Research on Sociocultural Influences on Motivation and Learning. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.

13 156 Evaluation and Research in Education Covington, M.J. (1992) Making the Grade: A Self-worth Perspective on Motivation and School Reform. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. DeBacker, T. and Nelson, R.M. (1999) Variations on an expectancy value model of motivation in science. Contemporary Educational Psychology 24, DeVolder, M.L. and Lens, W. (1982) Academic achievement and future time perspective as a cognitive-motivational concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 42, Dweck, C. (1986) Motivational processes affecting learning. American Psychologist 41, Dweck, C. and Leggett, E. (1988) A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review 95, Greene, B., DeBacker, T., Ravindran, B. and Krows, A.J. (1999) Goals, values, and beliefs as predictors of achievement and effort in high school mathematics classes. Sex Roles 40 (5), Greene, B. and Miller, R. (1996) Influences on course performance: Goals, perceived ability, and self-regulation. Contemporary Educational Psychology 21, Greene, B., Miller, R., Crowson, H.M., Duke, B. and Akey, K. (2004) Predicting high school students cognitive engagement and achievement: Contributions of classroom perceptions and motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology 29 (4), Maehr, M. (1984) Meaning and motivation: Toward a theory of personal investment. In R. Ames and C. Archer (eds) Research on Motivation in Education: Vol. 1 Student Motivation. San Diego: Academic Press. Maehr, M. and Midgley, C. (1991) Enhancing student motivation: A school-wide approach. Educational Psychologist 26 (3&4), Miller, R. and Brickman, S. (2004) A model of future-oriented motivation and selfregulation. Educational Psychology Review 16 (1), 933. Miller, R.B., Greene, B.A., Henderson, L.K., Williams, P.G., Brickman, S. and Krows, A.J. (1995) Future consequences: A unidimensional or multidimensional construct? Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, CA. Miller, R.B., Greene, B.A., Montalvo, G.P., Ravindran, B. and Nicholls, J.D. (1996) Engagement in academic work: The role of learning goals, future consequences, pleasing others, and perceived ability. Contemporary Educational Psychology 21, Montalvo, G.P. (1995) Pleasing the teacher: A student perspective. Unpublished manuscript. Montalvo, G.P. (1997) Pleasing the teacher: An exploration of the construct and its behavioral and motivational patterns. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The University of Oklahoma. Montalvo, G.P. and Roedel, T. (1995) Pleasing the teacher: A qualitative look. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, CA. Newman, R. (2002) What do I need to do to succeed when I don t understand what I m doing: Developmental influences on student adaptive help seeking. In A. Wigfield and S. Eccles (eds) Development of Achievement Motivation. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Pajares, F. (1996) Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research 66 (4), Phelan, P., Davidson, A. and Thanh Cao, H. (1992) Speaking up: Students perspectives on school. Phi Delta Kappa 73, Raynor, J.O. (1970) Relationship between achievement-related motives, future orientation, and academic performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 15, 2833.

14 Student Motivation and Engagement 157 Schutz, P.A. (1997) Educational goals, strategies use and the academic performance of high school students. High School Journal 80, Schutz, P.A. and Lanehart, S.L. (1994) Long-term educational goals, subgoals, learning strategies use and the academic performance of college students. Learning & Individual Difference 6, Urdan, T. and Maehr, M. (1995) Beyond a two-goal theory of motivation and achievement: A case for social goals. Review of Educational Research 65, Appendix Items on The Survey on High School Student Motivation Effort How would you rate your effort for this teacher as compared to your typical amount of effort for other teachers? Persistence When I run into a difficult part of a homework assignment I give up and go on to the next problem. (reversed scored) If I have difficulty with part of an assignment, I keep working until I understand it. If I have trouble understanding an assignment, I go over it again until I understand it. If I have trouble with part of an assignment, I don t do it. (reverse scored) Prior Interest How would you rate your interest in the subject taught by this teacher before the school year started. Learning Goal I do the work assigned in this class because I like to understand the material I study. I do the work assigned in this class because I like to understand complicated ideas. I do the work assigned in this class because I like learning interesting things. I do the work in this class because I like to solve challenging problems. Performance Goal I do the work assigned in this class because I don t want other students to think I m not smart. I do the work assigned in this class because I don t want to be the only one who cannot do the work well. I do the work assigned in this class because I want to look smart to my friends. (Item removed from analyses after confirmatory factor analysis) I do the work assigned in this class because I would be embarrassed if I could not do the work.

15 158 Evaluation and Research in Education Perceived Instrumentality*College I do the work in this class because good grades are important for college admissions or scholarships. I do the work assigned in this class because doing well is necessary for admissions to college. I do the work assigned in this class because getting into college is important to me. Perceived Instrumentality*School I do the work in this class because if I do well, I get praise or rewards from people at school. I do the work assigned in this class because I get some reward or recognition from others at school for doing well. I do the work assigned in this class because I receive recognition or honours at school for earning good grades. (Item removed from analyses after confirmatory factor analysis) Perceived Ability I think I am doing better than other students in this class. Compared to others in this class, I think I am good at the subject being taught. I have a good understanding of the concepts taught in this class. I am certain I understand the material presented in this class.

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