AC : CORE CONCEPTS FOR ENGINEERING LITERACY: THE INTERRELATIONSHIPS AMONG STEM DISCIPLINES

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1 AC : CORE CONCEPTS FOR ENGINEERING LITERACY: THE INTERRELATIONSHIPS AMONG STEM DISCIPLINES Yoojung Chae, Purdue University Yoojung Chae is a postdoctoral research assistant in the School of Engineering Education at Purdue University. She received her M.S. in Educational Psychology (specialization in Gifted and Talented education) from University of Connecticut, and a Ph.D. in Educational Psychology (specialization in Gifted and Talented education) from Purdue University. She has served as the coordinator of GERI Saturday and summer enrichment programs, where she coordinated student courses as well as parent information sessions. Her research interests include students' perceptions of their learning eperienceas and how to promote students' learning who show giftedness in the Engineering and Technology areas. Senay Purzer, Purdue University Senay Purzer is an Assistant Professor in the School of Engineering Education at Purdue University. She is also the Co-Director of Assessment Research for the Institute for P-12 Engineering Research and Learning (INSPIRE). She received a Ph.D. and a M.A in Science Education, Department of Curriculum and Instruction from Arizona State University. Her creative research focuses on collaborative learning, design & decision-making, and the role of engineering self-efficacy on student achievement. Monica Cardella, Purdue University Monica Cardella is an Assistant Professor of Engineering Education and the Co-Director of Assessment Research for the Institute for P-12 Engineering Research and Learning (INSPIRE) at Purdue University. Prof. Cardella earned a BSc in mathematics from the University of Puget Sound and a MS and PhD in Industrial Engineering from the University of Washington. Her research interests include: K-12 engineering education, engineering design, the role of parents in engineering education, assessment, learning in informal environments, and mathematical thinking. American Society for Engineering Education, 2010 Page

2 Core Concepts for Engineering Literacy: The Interrelationships among STEM Disciplines Abstract The purpose of this paper is to define STEM literacy by eamining the commonalities and differences between engineering, technology, science, and mathematics. We analyzed three major organizations publications on literacy and K-12 education standards. These publications are: 1) Standards for Technological Literacy, 2) National Science Education Standards, and 3) Principles and Standards for School Mathematics. These standards and literacy documents are compared and synthesized by eamining their differences and commonalities. We also compared the definition of engineering literacy emerged from this analysis with other definitions published by AAAS, NRC, and NAE. By comparing the different literacy documents and standards, we provide a holistic view of the relationships among the four fields and suggest core concepts to be included in engineering literacy. Introduction and Literature Review In contrast to science, mathematics, and even technology education, all of which have established learning standards and a long history in the K-12 curriculum, the teaching of engineering in elementary and secondary schools is still very much a work in progress. Not only have no learning standards been developed, little is available in the way of guidance for teacher professional development, and no national or state-level assessments of student accomplishment have been developed. 1 Teaching and researching engineering education in K-12 educational settings is important for two reasons. First, engineering education encourages people to understand engineering in daily life so they can get benefits at work and home, choosing the best products, operating systems correctly, and troubleshooting technical problems when they need. Second, the knowledge of engineering and engineering thinking can increase people s ability to judge and make decisions about national issues related to technology use and development. 2 Hence, teaching engineering concepts in K-12 schools would benefit both individuals in their everyday decisions and the society at large. Despite the benefits of including engineering curriculum in K- 12 classrooms, defining and developing engineering literacy and standards are still in progress. 1 As we build an argument for engineering literacy and K-12 standards in engineering, a close look into other STEM subjects (such as science, mathematics, and technology) where standards already eists, is needed. Although science, technology, and mathematics are three independent areas, they have been influencing and being influenced by each other as they developed and evolved. According to the ITEA standards 2, Science provides the knowledge about the natural world that underlies most technological products today. In return, technology provides science with the tools needed to eplore the world... The fundamental difference between Page

3 them is that science seeks to understand a universe that already eists, while technology is creating a universe that has eisted only in the minds of inventors Mathematics and technology have a similar but more distant relationship. Mathematics offers a language with which to epress relationships in science and technology and provides useful analytical tools for scientists and engineers. Technological innovations, such as the computer, can stimulate progress in mathematics, while mathematical inventions, such as numerical analysis theories can lead to improved technologies. In other words, science plays the role of providing basic knowledge that is used as a basis for technological development, while technology provides scientific tools for investigating the knowledge about the world. Mathematics, on the other hand, provides a language that enables scientists and engineers to communicate in analytical ways and using a shared language. In turn, technology gives better tools for analyzing or constructing scientific and mathematical models. As an eample, the mathematical standard about geometry shows the close relationship between mathematics and technology, stating that: Technology also has an important role in the teaching and learning of geometry. Tools such as dynamic geometry software enable students to model, and have an interactive eperience with, a large variety of twodimensional shapes Visualization and spatial reasoning are also improved by interaction with computer animations and in other technological settings. 3 The interconnections between engineering and STM areas also eist. Katehi, Pearson, and Feder 1 pointed out the dependency among these three subjects and engineering, saying that Engineering is intimately related to science and mathematics. Engineers use both science and mathematics in their work, and scientists and mathematicians use the products of engineering in their work. In every field of engineering, an understanding of the relevant science is a prerequisite to doing the job. That is, the STEM fields are interconnected, and each affects the others. Hence, in the real world, it is very difficult to separate engineering from science, and technology from engineering. 1 Table 1 shows how the scientific, technological, and mathematical (STM) standards present these interrelationships. Table 1. STM standards: The interrelationship among Science, Technology, and Mathematics Areas Direct Quotes from Science, technology, and Mathematics Standards Science Science and Technology: It establishes connections between the natural and designed worlds and provides students with opportunities to develop decisionmaking abilities; the standards emphasize abilities associated with the process of design and fundamental understandings about the enterprise of science and its various linkages with technology; as a result, students would develop abilities to identify and state a problem, design a solution- including a cost and risk-andbenefit analysis- implement a solution, and evaluate the solution. 4 Technology Students will develop an understanding of the relationships among technologies and the connections between technology and other fields of study (standard 3). 2 Mathematics Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to recognize and use connections among mathematical ideas; Page

4 understand how mathematical ideas interconnect and build on one another to produce a coherent whole; recognize and apply mathematics in contets outside of mathematics. 3 While the differences and reciprocal relationships among science, technology, and mathematics are well-defined, the distinction of E in the STEM family is not as clear. In this paper, we investigated the question, What is STEM literacy? by analyzing the commonalities among science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. The result of this paper will lead educators and researchers to better understand of engineering literacy, which will then help them teach and evaluate the development of engineering literacy knowledge and skills. Method To identify the commonalities and differences factors among scientific, technological, and mathematics literacy, the authors systematically reviewed three popular publications of each area. Particularly, K-12 education standards were chosen for a parallel comparison. These publications are: Standards for Technological Literacy 2 for technological literacy, National Science Education Standards 4 for science literacy, and Principles and Standards for School Mathematics 3 for mathematics literacy. We then compared the definition of engineering literacy emerged from this analysis with other definitions published by AAAS, NRC, and NAE. For engineering, because the nationwideused engineering standards does not eist yet, only the principles for engineering in K-12 education suggested by NAE & NRC 1 were compared with the outcomes of the analyses. By comparing the different literacy documents and standards, we provide a holistic view of the relationships among the four fields and suggest core concepts to be included in engineering literacy. Results As a result of reviewing and analyzing the K-12 STM standards, three commonalities emerged: process, modeling, and societal impact. The related STM standards are described in Table 2, Table 3, and Table 4. The process The first commonality among the three areas is the process each field uses. All three fields standards discuss the importance of a problem-solving process even though the terminologies are used differently. First, the science education standards use the term inquiry defined as Asking questions, planning and conducting investigations, using appropriate tools and techniques to gather data, thinking critically and logically about relationships between evidence and eplanations, constructing and analyzing alternative eplanations, and communicating scientific arguments. 4 Page

5 A similar problem-solving process is found in the technological standard, namely the design process. The design process is defined in the technological literacy standards as follows: Identifying the problem; generating ideas; identifying the requirements; building models and prototypes; refining the design solution; building or constructing the actual product or system. 2 Katehi, Pearson, and Feder 1 also referred that the design process in engineering is one of the important characteristics, which is the basic approach to solving problems. Through the design process, engineers attain skills such as analytical and synthetic thinking; detailed understanding and holistic understanding; planning and building; and implicit, procedural knowledge and eplicit, declarative knowledge. 1 In the mathematical literacy standards, problem-solving is defined as engaging in a task for which the solution method is not known in advance. 3 Similarly, to find a solution, students need to identify the problem first, then, need to apply and adapt their knowledge, considering whether the used strategies are appropriate. Through learning the problem-solving skills, students are epected to obtain critical and logical thinking skills, as well as positive affective aspects, such as persistence and curiosity, or confidence. Table 2. Standards related to the problem-solving process Areas Process: Direct Quotes from Science, technology, and Mathematics Standards Science Science as inquiry: Students at all grade levels and in every domain of science should have the opportunity to use scientific inquiry and develop the ability to think and act in ways associated with inquiry, including asking questions, planning and conducting investigations, using appropriate tools and techniques to gather data, thinking critically and logically about relationships between evidence and eplanations, constructing and analyzing alternative eplanations, and communicating scientific arguments.; parallel to technology as design. 4 Technology Students will develop an understanding of the attributes of design; Students will develop an understanding of engineering design; Students will develop an understanding of the role of troubleshooting, research and development, invention and innovation, and eperimentation in problem solving (Standard 8, 9, 10). 2 Mathematics Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to build new mathematical knowledge through problem solving; solve problems that arise in mathematics and in other contets; apply and adapt a variety of appropriate strategies to solve problems; monitor and reflect on the process of mathematical problem solving (Standard 6). 3 Modeling The second commonality among the three areas is modeling. The science standards state that all science subject matters focus on facts, concepts, principles, theories, and models. That means, science subjects, such as physical science, life science, and earth and space science ultimately construct models as accumulated knowledge products based on the facts, concepts, principles, or theories. Then people would use the accumulated knowledge when they need and communicate with the help of these models. Page

6 Similarly, technological standards assert that students should understand and build abilities to select and use models (related to medical, agricultural, energy and power, information and communication, transportation, manufacturing, and construction technologies. Similar to science, each technological part would be constructed based on facts, concepts, principles, or theories that may result in building new models. Especially, modeling during the design process provides opportunities to demonstrate concepts and to visualize ideas and visions; it allows people to find problems or conflicts before the whole system runs. 2 Mathematical standards also show what content knowledge students should understand and use in appropriate ways. To select and use appropriately, they need to understand the mathematical concepts, as well as the mathematical models that are created as results of accumulated knowledge. Especially, standard 12 stresses the role of representation in mathematics, including the importance of building the mathematical modeling concept. By learning representation students are epected to organize and communicate mathematical ideas appropriately, to select and apply to solve problems, and to model and interpret phenomena not only in mathematical fields but also in engineering, physical, social related issues; for eample, the developed model is also used in the engineering/technology design process, which provides simulation whether the designed system would work appropriately. Table 3. Standards related to the modeling Areas Modeling: Direct Quotes from Science, technology, and Mathematics Standards Science Science in personal and social perspectives: It helps students develop decisionmaking skills and a foundation on which to base decisions they will face as citizens. 4 Physical science, Life science, Earth and space science: Science subject matter focuses on the science facts, concepts, principles, theories, and models that are important for all students to know, understand, and use. 4 Technology 2. Students will develop an understanding of the core concepts of technology; 14. Students will develop an understanding of and be able to select and use medical technologies; 15. Students will develop an understanding of and be able to select and use agricultural and related biotechnologies; 16. Students will develop an understanding of and be able to select and use energy and power technologies; 17. Students will develop an understanding of and be able to select and use information and communication technologies; 18. Students will develop an understanding of and be able to select and use transportation technologies; 19. Students will develop an understanding of and be able to select and use manufacturing technologies; 20. Students will develop an understanding of and be able to select and use construction technologies. 2 Mathematics 1. Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to understand numbers, ways of representing numbers, relationships among numbers, and number systems; understand meanings of operations and how they relate to one another; compute fluently and make reasonable estimate; 2. Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to understand patterns, relations, and functions; represent and analyze mathematical situations and structures using algebraic symbols; use Page

7 Societal Impact mathematical models to represent and understand quantitative relationships; analyze change in various contets; 3. Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to analyze characteristics and properties of two- and three-dimensional geometric shapes and develop mathematical arguments about geometric relationships; specify locations and describe spatial relationships using coordinate geometry and other representational systems; apply transformations and use symmetry to analyze mathematical situations; use visualization, spatial reasoning, and geometric modeling to solve problems; 4. Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to understand measurable attributes of objects and the units, systems, and processes of measurement; apply appropriate techniques, tools, and formulas to determine measurements; 5. Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to formulate questions that can be addressed with data and collect, organize, and display relevant data to answer them; select and use appropriate statistical methods to analyze data; develop and evaluate inferences and predictions that are based on data; understand and apply basic concepts of probability; 8. Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to organize and consolidate their mathematical thinking through communication; communicate their mathematical thinking coherently and clearly to peers, teachers, and others; analyze and evaluate the mathematical thinking and strategies of others; use the language of mathematics to epress mathematical ideas precisely; 10. Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to create and use representations to organize, record, and communicate mathematical ideas; select, apply, and translate among mathematical representations to solve problems; use representations to model and interpret physical, social, and mathematical phenomena. 3 The third commonality is that all three areas influence society and are influenced by society. The science standard strand on history and nature of science shows that science develops itself, reflecting history; it is not done by one-time process but by an ongoing process, based on the previous achievements and the needs of the current era. And, because society and science has close relationships, people should make decisions, considering the outcome and results as citizens in the society. Technological literacy refers to the impact of technology on society by stating that In many ways, technology defines a society or an era Technology shapes the environment in which people live, and over the course of time, it has become an increasingly larger part of people s lives. 2 The technology standards also point out the effect of society on technological developments; Just as technology molds society, so too does society mold technology. 2 That is, in both ways technology and society affect each other. Page

8 The mathematical literacy standard, especially the specific mathematics content Data analysis and probability also includes the importance of mathematics, in terms of the influences on people in society. To be informed citizens and to reason logically as a consumer, people need to learn about data analysis and attain knowledge of probability, which will result in getting abilities to judge correctly; for eample, to discern whether the society distorts public opinion on issues, or whether some commercial products include correct information about the quality and effectiveness. Using mathematical knowledge, people would behave as intelligent citizens and consumers. Table 4 includes STM standards which show the relationship between each area and society. Table 4. STM standards related to the society Areas Societal Impact: Direct Quotes from Science, technology, and Mathematics Standards Science History and nature of science: Students need to understand that science reflects its history and is an ongoing, changing enterprise. 4 Technology 4. Students will develop an understanding of the cultural, social, economic, and political effects of technology; 6. Students will develop an understanding of the role of society in the development and use of technology; 7. Students will develop an understanding of the influence of technology on history. 2 Mathematics 5. Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to formulate questions that can be addressed with data and collect, organize, and display relevant data to answer them; select and use appropriate statistical methods to analyze data; develop and evaluate inferences and predictions that are based on data; understand and apply basic concepts of probability.10. Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to create and use representations to organize, record, and communicate mathematical ideas; select, apply, and translate among mathematical representations to solve problems; use representations to model and interpret physical, social, and mathematical phenomena. 3 Summary and Discussion By reviewing and analyzing the scientific, technological, and mathematical standards, three commonalities were found as the intersection of the three areas: process, modeling, and the social impact. Although the terminologies differed among three fields, each standard showed similar steps from identifying the problem to reaching the solution. In between these steps, a common objective was that students will understand how to use critical and logical thinking skills, adapting previous knowledge. The second commonality was modeling. Each discipline used the same term modeling in different contets but with the same purpose of representing relationships and communicating phenomena. The last commonality that was referred in this paper was the social impact. Science, technology, and mathematics have been developed based on the needs of society; at the same time, the improvement of science, technology, and mathematics has affected the development of society. Table 5 shows the commonalities among science, technology and mathematics. Page

9 Table 5. The commonalities among science, technology, and mathematics Process Modeling Societal Impact through Science Inquiry Scientific Models Knowledge Technology Design Technological Models Tools Mathematics Problem-Solving Mathematical Models Analysis The one theme that resulted of this study, systems and models, was also identified as a common theme across science, technology and mathematics in the Project 2061: Benchmarks for Science Literacy by AAAS. 5 There are four common themes in total defined in Project 2061: a) system, b) model, c) constancy and change, and d) scale. The theme,, can also be found in the current study result. That is, engineering literate person is able to understand the relationships between parts and the whole, uses models for representing concepts, and applies knowledge to solve problems in our life. Similarity eists between the above STM commonalities and the general principles for K- 12 engineering education defined by NAE & NRC 1. The three principles are: 1) K-12 engineering education should emphasize engineering design; 2) K-12 engineering education should incorporate important and developmentally appropriate mathematics, science, and technology knowledge and skills; and, 3) K-12 engineering education should promote engineering habits of mind. The concept of design from the first principle is discussed as one of the commonalities among science, technology and mathematics. The second principle points out the importance of incorporating the STM knowledge and skills, which will support the design process. The engineering habits of mind, such as attention to ethical consideration, also relate to our finding in regards to the impact of engineering on people and society. The term, technological literacy, that has been used in both technology and engineering fields 6. It includes three dimensions: a) Knowledge (etensive vs. limited), b) Ways of thinking and acting (highly developed vs. poorly developed), and c) Capabilities (high vs. low). According to the book Technically Speaking by NAE 6, a technologically literate person should be able to understand the basic engineering concepts and terms, the relationships between technology and society, and the engineering design-process. In addition, they can ask and think critically when making decisions about technology use and apply mathematical concepts when judging benefits and risks of technology. Therefore, it can be summarized that the NAE definition and current study result have common aspects, in terms of the relationship between engineering and society and the ability to use a design process in developing solutions to problems. Assessing Engineering Literacy Based on this analysis we suggest the core concepts of engineering literacy as the ability to: discuss, critique, and make decisions about national, local, and personal issues that involve engineering solutions; Page

10 understand and eplain how basic societal needs (e.g., water, food, and energy) are processed, produced, and transported; solve basic problems faced in everyday life by employing concepts and models of science, technology, and mathematics. The above essential aspects of engineering literacy are based on the commonalities between STM standards. The list is considerably shorter than the technological literacy principles reported by NAE (2002) 6 ;however, it addresses the Each bullet addresses the societal impact of STEM, requires knowledge of processes to reach these abilities, and involves the use of STEM concepts and models. Assessment of these literacy skills may take many forms. Several questions that can guide assessment are provided in Table 6. Table 6. Sample Questions that Guide the Assessment of Engineering Literacy STEM Literacy discuss, critique, and make decisions about national, local, and personal issues that involve engineering solutions understand and eplain how basic societal needs (e.g., water, food, and energy) are processed, produced, and transported solve basic problems faced in everyday life by employing concepts and models of science, technology, and mathematics Guiding Question Should the federal government support the building of a large-scale solar power plant in Chicago, IL? What processes does a cereal bo go through before reaching a shelf in a grocery store? How would you go about fiing a CD player that skips songs as it plays? Future Research As a future study more literatures that include each literacy beyond the three organizations standards should be reviewed and analyzed to compare whether the three commonalities in this paper and the real educational setting literacy match; for eample, the literatures that define engineering, scientific, technological, or mathematical literacy for classroom teaching or assessing/evaluating students achievement can be analyzed and compared to the current results. In addition, currently used assessments in engineering education should be reviewed and compared to identify how they reflect engineering literacy. Table 7. Aligning Guiding Questions with NAE s Definition of Engineering Literacy Page

11 Knowledge Ways of Thinking & Acting Capabilities Recognizes the pervasiveness of technology in everyday life. Understands basic engineering concepts and terms, such as systems, constraints, and trade-offs. Is familiar with the nature and limitations of the engineering design process. Knows some of the ways technology shapes human history and people shape technology. Knows that all technologies entail risk, some that can be anticipated and some that cannot. Appreciates that the development and use of technology involve trade-offs and a balance of costs and benefits. Understands that technology reflects the values and culture of society. Asks pertinent questions, of self and others, regarding the benefits and risks of technologies. Seeks information about new technologies. Participates, when appropriate, in decisions about the development and use of technology. Has a range of hands-on skills, such as using a computer for word processing and surfing the Internet and operating a variety of home and office appliances. Can identify and fi simple mechanical or technological problems at home or work. Can apply basic mathematical concepts related to probability, scale, and estimation to make informed judgments about technological risks and benefits. Should the federal government support the building of a large-scale solar power plant in Chicago, IL? What processes does a cereal bo go through before reaching a shelf in a grocery store? How would you go about fiing a CD player that skips songs as it plays? Page

12 Bibliography 1. Katehi, L.; Pearson, G.; Feder, M. Engineering in K-12 education: Understanding the status and improving the prospects. National Academy Press: Washington D.C., International Technology Education Association (ITEA). Standards for technological literacy: Content for the study of technology. Reston, VA., National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). Principles and standards for school mathematics. Reston, VA., National Research Council (NRC). National science education standards. National Academy Press: Washington D.C., American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). Benchmarks for science literacy. Oford University Press: New York, National Academy of Engineering (NAE). Technically Speaking: Why all Americans need to know more about technology. National Academy Press: Washington, D.C., Page