Current Trends in Information Literacy

Transcription

1 Current Trends in Information Literacy Library Learning Trends Esevier s Learning Trends Series CHANDOS PUBLISHING

2 Tabe of Contents: The Nature of Information Literacy Excerpt from: Research 2.0 and the Future of Information Literacy by Tibor Kotay, Sonja Špiranec, Lászó Z. Karvaics Critica Thinking and Information Literacy Excerpt from: From Information Literacy to Socia Epistemoogy by Anthony Anderson and Bi Johnston Information Literacy Skis in the Research Process Excerpt from: New Roes for Research Librarians by Hide Drivenes Daand and Kari-Mette Wamann Hide Visua iteracy meets information iteracy by Mary J. Snyder Broussard, Judith Schwartz Excerpt from: Skis to Make a Librarian by Dawn Lowe-Wincentsen Science information iteracy and the roe of academic ibrarians Excerpt from: Managing Scientific Information and Research Data by Sveta Baykoucheva

3 CHAPTER 2 The Nature of Information Literacy It is rather obvious that researchers are or shoud be informed citizens, not ony in their everyday ife but aso in their professiona work. This means that reying on a number of iteracies is foundationa to the work of today s researcher. To gain a more accurate picture of the nature of these iteracies, we can consider them from a bird s-eye view. Such a perspective reveas three eves of iteracy: conceptua competencies that incude innovative thinking, probemsoving, and critica thinking; human competencies: socia networking skis, sef-management, and cross-cutura interaction skis; practica competencies: incuding earning skis and information iteracy (Lee, 2013). The best-known iteracy from among practica competencies is information iteracy. DEFINITIONS, DECLARATIONS, AND FRAMEWORKS The terms information iteracy and information iterate were coined by Zurkowski (1974) to refer to peope who are abe to sove their information probems by using reevant information sources and appying reevant technoogy. As Pinto, Cordón, and Diaz (2010) point out, information iteracy has stimuated considerabe, ong-standing interest throughout the second haf of the twentieth century, and more significanty from the 1980s onward. This is shown by the number and variety of pubications, reguary reviewed by Johnson et a. (2012), among others. Zurkowski s work was the formative moment for information iteracy. His approach ogicay perceived information iteracy as a programmatic aim, and paced ibraries and ibrarians at the core of this effort. The advent of bibiographic databases ushered in a new era of research. Eary databases required significant additiona technoogica know-how, often possessed by Research 2.0 and the Future of Information Literacy Copyright 2016 Esevier Ltd. A rights reserved. 61

4 62 Research 2.0 and the Future of Information Literacy ibrarians ony. This decisive intermediary roe diminished with the appearance of CD-ROMs in the 1980s and finay vanished with the arriva of socia media toos. Zurkowski and other eary writers on the topic were undoubtedy right to see that the changes in the research andscape woud resut in a situation in which researchers woud be eft without knowedge of the technoogies of searching. These new methods of searching were indispensabe, and without them researchers woud have remained practicay functionay iiterate in seeking academic information. Naturay, this required education. When databases became searchabe and usabe by non-experts, the roe of ibrarians as teachers of research skis was we estabished. The meaning of information iteracy as a theory as we as a practice had yet to be ceary articuated. The appearance of the ACRL Competency Standards in 2000 was an important step forward, as it coud be used to show information iteracy in a its compexity, aying out achievabe objectives. Information iteracy became a fu-fedged practice with theoretica backing. In the meantime, information seeking has become a daiy activity as googing is empoyed with unbeievabe frequency. However, this does not question the vaidity of information iteracy. The question is whether we shoud refocus our efforts on the educationa, cutura, and technoogica shifts in which information iteracy per se becomes a somewhat arbitrary abe for the very stuff of earning and information discovery in today s academic (and arger) word (Cowan, 2014, p. 28). In a more genera context, we can say that the increase in avaiabe materias not ony caused changes in coection management practices, but aso drove the need for information iteracy (Pamer & Gefand, 2013). Definitions and descriptions of information iteracy (IL) can be summarized as referring to 1. the use of information and communication technoogies (ICTs) to retrieve and disseminate information; 2. the competences to find and use the information in information (re)sources; 3. the process of recognizing information need, and finding, evauating, and using information to acquire or extend knowedge. The third option is the most comprehensive and most usefu, as it incudes both the use of ICT and the information (re)sources concept (Boekhorst, 2003). Perhaps the best known and widey accepted definition of IL says that information iterate peope are abe to recognize when information is needed. They are aso abe to identify, ocate, evauate, and use information to sove

5 The Nature of Information Literacy 63 a particuar probem (ALA, 1989). This definition has been widey used and further deveoped by other definitions. In their foundationa work, Johnston and Webber (2003, p. 336) provide the foowing definition of information iteracy: Information iteracy is the adoption of appropriate information behaviour to obtain, through whatever channe or medium, information we fitted to information needs, together with critica awareness of the importance of wise and ethica use of information in society. They identify four major goas for information iteracy in the information society: information iteracy for citizenship, incuding engagement in deveopment by freedom of access to and critica use of data and information; information iteracy for economic growth that stimuates the deveopment of new and existing enterprises by intensive and creative use of information and knowedge; information iteracy for empoyabiity; information iteracy for persona growth and creativity, which cuts across and contributes to achieving a the above goas (Webber & Johnston, 2000). Our previous discussion has demonstrated that a four goas are vaid in the research environment. Obviousy, the weight of these goas differs to some degree. If we take the roe of the researcher as a citizen, we have to say that there is no room in this book for outining this issue in its entirety and we do not intend to do so. Nonetheess, we have aready pointed toward this roe and mentioned deveopments to achieve citizen science and open science or open access, just to name a few. Critica use of information and data is crucia for information iteracy and thus has found its pace in this book and pays a major roe in it. Without wanting to be exhaustive again, there is hardy any doubt that research contributed to economic growth and deveopment in genera. Intensive and creative use of information and knowedge is very much the essence of research. IL may not infuence empoyabiity directy, but writing this book woud make itte sense if we did not beieve in its importance. The reevance of persona growth and creativity is unquestionabe, especiay as they affect a the goas above. IL education emphasizes critica thinking (appearing in severa paces throughout this book, especiay in the section about reading and writing) and the necessity of being abe to recognize the quaity of a given message. It is firmy positioned among other iteracies despite a certain amount of (occasionay we-founded) skepticism, which in itsef highights the fact that information iteracy and especiay its ack has aways been of greater

6 64 Research 2.0 and the Future of Information Literacy importance to academic ibrarians than to any other group of payers in the information and education arena (Bawden & Robinson, 2009). Different modes approach information iteracy from different viewpoints. The Seven Faces of Information Literacy in Higher Education, conceived by Christine Bruce in 1997, concentrates on experiencing information iteracy (Bruce, 1997). From a different point of view, we wi come back to this mode. Using Vannevar Bush s vision of the technoogicay connected and enabed researcher who pays key roe in the information society, Johnston and Webber (2005) propose information iteracy as a soft appied discipine. They contrast this approach to the characterization of information iteracy as a persona attribute. As we wi demonstrate, they are not the ony ones directing attention to the importance of information iteracy aimed at research and researchers. From among the numerous conceptua modes of IL, we wi take the approach that differentiates between three eves, that is, macro, micro, and meso, and paces cuture on the macro-eve. The meso-eve is composed of different information subcutures, and the micro-eve represents the socaed individua payground. The meso-eve materiaizes in concepts such as the information cuture of individua organizations. The micro-eve is entirey individua. There are aso severa process modes that address information iteracy on a genera eve in the educationa and ibrary environment, as indentified by Wai-yi (1998) and Uribe Tirado and Castaño Muñoz (2012). Markess and Streatfied (2007) offer a mode that consists of three eements: connecting with information (orientation, exporing, focusing, ocating); interacting with information (thinking criticay, evauating); making use of information (transforming, communicating, appying). The Big Six mode (Eisenberg & Berkowitz, 1990) contains the foowing six stages of probem-soving with two substages under each: 1. Task definition 1.1. Defining the information probem 1.2. Identifying information needed 2. Information seeking strategies 2.1. Determining a possibe sources 2.2. Seecting the best sources 3. Location and access 3.1. Locating sources (inteectuay and physicay) 3.2. Finding information within sources

7 The Nature of Information Literacy Use of information 4.1. Engaging (e.g., read, hear, view, touch) 4.2. Extracting reevant information 5. Synthesis 5.1. Organizing from mutipe sources 5.2. Presenting the information 6. Evauation 6.1. Judging the product (effectiveness) 6.2. Judging the process (efficiency). 1 Coming from the word of different iteracies more or ess cosey connected to IL, there are some higher order abiities and activities that can be used when thinking about information iteracy, especiay in the word of research. These skis broaden the modes of IL by adding severa new dimensions to them. Information iterate peope thus are required to effectivey communicate verba and visua information in ora and written form, in their native anguage and in a second (foreign) anguage (AACU, 2002; Bundy, 2004a, 2004b). The activities required from information iterate peope are as foows: choosing a communication medium and format that best supports the purposes and the intended audience; using a range of information technoogy appications in creating the product or performance; incorporating principes of design and communication; communicating ceary and with a stye that supports the purposes of the intended audience (ACRL, 2000). A the above skis and abiities buid a foundation for higher-eve skis that not ony refect those abiities but aso go beyond them. These higher-eve skis can be summarized as foows: transforming information into knowedge and knowedge into judgment and action (AACU, 2002); recognizing, understanding, and anayzing the context within which anguage, information, and knowedge are communicated and presented; understanding the reationships among anguage, knowedge, and power; using appropriate technoogies to manage information coected or generated for future use; critiquing our own and others works (D Angeo & Maid, 2004). There is an organizing heuristic, which views information iteracy as a product of its time. It is caed kairos and demands that we understand 1

8 66 Research 2.0 and the Future of Information Literacy a truth caims as embedded in a context, and a actions as measured responses to that context (Drabinski, 2014, p. 481). It is rather sef-expanatory that different decarations aso pay an important roe in the ife of information iteracy, the content of some of which are outined here. Whie containing significant statements on important issues, to the Lyon Decaration on Access to Information and Deveopment (IFLA, 2014) is not concerned with issues, reated to research. Nevertheess, it is usefu to contempate one of its statements: Increased access to information and knowedge, underpinned by universa iteracy, is an essentia piar of sustainabe deveopment. Greater avaiabiity of quaity information and data and the invovement of communities in its creation wi provide a fuer, more transparent aocation of resources. This statement points to the fact that as outined above besides information, data has come to the foreground of attention. Nonetheess, the main emphasis of this statement is on the connection between iteracy and quaity information that is of prime interest for research. The Decaration aso underines the roe of information intermediaries in connecting stakehoders across regiona, cutura, and other barriers to faciitate communication and the exchange of deveopment soutions that coud be scaed for greater impact. We can recognize here that this has meaning for scientific research that is goba and the major group of stakehoders comprises researchers. The two information iteracy frameworks that are the most reevant for our purpose are the Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education, conceived by the Association of Coege and Research Libraries (ACRL, 2000) in the United States of America and the Society of Coege, Nationa and University Libraries (SCONUL) Seven Piars of Information Literacy. Core Mode for Higher Education, devised by SCONUL (2011) in the United Kingdom. Athough we do not intend to anayze them in any detai here, they (especiay the atter) are referred to severa times throughout this book. There is aso a another framework which provides an exampe to iustrate the distinguished roe of information iteracy in the researcher s ife. It is the Vitae Research Deveopment Framework, which defines the knowedge, behaviors, and attributes of the effective and highy skied researcher. It operates with enses that focus on knowedge, behaviors, and attributes that are deveoped or acquired through, or used in, the broader contexts of being a researcher. The information iteracy ens is one of a series of enses that address, among other issues, empoyabiity, eadership, pubic engagement, and mobiity.

9 The Nature of Information Literacy 67 The framework approaches information iteracy in its knowedge base domain. IL is described in three phases. It puts the use of information technoogy into first pace, whie emphasizing the need to obtain expert advice from information or data managers, archivists, and ibrarians. The second phase deveops awareness of the creation, organization, vaidation, sharing, storing, and curation of information and/or data, as we as an understanding of the ega, ethica, and security requirements. Somewhat surprisingy, knowedge on the purpose of metadata appears in this domain. Phase three focuses on advising and educating peers, ess experienced researchers, students, and staff in the above requirements. The fina phase is about deveoping new techniques and anticipating trends. The information iteracy ens underines that IL is necessary not ony for finding, anayzing and evauating data, and searching for iterature, but for pubishing as we. These quaities are fundamenta to the whoe process of research. This ens may be used by the researchers themseves, who can identify: how information iteracy can contribute to their professiona deveopment; how the skis and attributes they have deveoped through research can contribute to their deveopment in information iteracy; which areas of IL they need to deveop to be more effective. It aso provides evidence of the transferabiity of their information iteracy skis in their CV, in job appications, and at interviews. This ens aso may be used to: demonstrate how information iteracy can contribute toward the overa professiona deveopment of researchers; enabe researchers to recognize how usefu and transferabe is the earning they have acquired through information iteracy reated activities; expore how the Vitae Researcher Deveopment Framework reates to the SCONUL Seven Piars of Information Literacy and vice versa (Vitae, 2011). THE NEW LITERACIES CONTEXT Livingstone, van Couvering, and Thumin (2008) identify severa purposes of iteracies: fostering democracy, participation, and active citizenship; contributing to knowedge economy and competitiveness in the information economy; supporting ifeong earning and persona fufiment.

10 68 Research 2.0 and the Future of Information Literacy They add that information and media iterate individuas are not ony ikey to have more to offer and achieve, but aso are more abe to make proper choices from the rich array of offers for the consumer. The concept of new iteracies comes from New Literacy Studies, a body of work that has approached the study of iteracy not as an issue of measurement or of skis but as socia practices that vary from one context to another (Street, 2008, p. 420). According to the apparenty most widey accepted definition in this vein by Street (1984, p. 1), iteracy is conceived as socia practices and conceptions of reading and writing. This socia nature of iteracy is expressed by Johnson (2011) as foows: Our concept of iteracy changes every time there s a major shift in information technoogy. Being iterate used to mean knowing how to sign your name. At one point it meant the abiity to read and write Latin. Today, being iterate generay means being abe to read and understand a newspaper in your own anguage. These socia practices have been magnified by the growing roe of digita technoogies (Livingstone, 2004). A number of iteracies can be identified within varying socia contexts and under varying socia conditions. The nature of these different iteracies is changing within the conditions of textua work, that is, reading and writing. They aso depend on varying socia contexts and equay varying socia conditions. Consequenty, they change with time, according to the changing purposes and circumstances, as we as the peope and toos invoved (Lankshear & Knobe, 2004). For a these changing circumstances, a rapid deveopment of information and communication technoogies represents one of the most crucia factors. The formuation of iteracies as socia practices ed to the appearance of the foowing requirements: Literacies must be foundationa capabiities on which particuar skis depend. Consequenty, iteracies and their ack wi have a ifeong and ife-wide impact. Extended iteracy practice shoud be deveoped continuousy, thus they are acquired through continued deveopment and refinement in different contexts. Digita practices that emerge in compex situations wi invove an interaction between persona capabiities or dispositions and the environment supporting action. Transferring digita capabiities from one environment to another is more probematic than has been acknowedged. Consequenty, the transfer from socia ife to research environments that may happen with the use of socia media is probematic.

11 The Nature of Information Literacy 69 Literacies must infuence individua identity, specificay on the way a stance toward knowedge in digita forms is adopted. Literacies are continuay evoving in response to technica, epistemoogica, and cutura changes (Littejohn, Beetham, & McGi, 2012). Information iteracy and other (reated) iteracies are seen as new iteracies on account of their orientation toward new informationa, technoogica, and societa reaities (Buschman, 2009). Leu et a. (2004) provide a review of the roes of iteracy that iustrates this. For instance, as agricutura technoogies improved thus aowing the Sumerian civiization to expand, it became necessary to record business transactions and tax records. This socia necessity prompted the deveopment of the first writing technoogy. In medieva Europe, the Christian church used iteracy as a vehice to enforce its reigious viewpoint with the hep of a iterate priesthood, which was abe to faithfuy copy, read, and interpret common reigious texts. Literacy became much more widespread as Martin Luther argued for the need for individuas to read and directy access reigious texts on their own. Reformation went hand in hand with the deveopment of printing technoogies. Street (2008, p. 7) reminds us of the foowing: One response to the growing roe of technoogies of communication in our ives is to overstate their abiity to determine our socia and cutura activity. He adds that such modes were rooted in assumptions about technoogica determinism, which have ater been chaenged and discredited. Nevertheess, Internet technoogies and digita forms of communication brought the same thinking back and it is difficut to take sufficient account of the technoogica dimension of new iteracies without such determinism. On the other hand, the pervasive infuence of information technoogy may be regarded to be rea and has to be approached taking its compexity into consideration. This thinking is buit on the idea that technoogica determinism is a pure theoretica position, which tries to understand genera patterns of socia and cutura change. However, we do not need to choose between different vocabuaries and overa frameworks to foow the pervasive nature of the atest information technoogy soutions (the Internet per se, the mobie communication technoogy, the ubiquitous computer incuding embedded systems and sensors, nano- and bioinformatics, etc.). We aso need to have a broad picture of future technoogies to be abe to redesign the od information iteracies and get ready for new ones.

12 70 Research 2.0 and the Future of Information Literacy The historica deveopment of iteracy ceary shows that there is a difference between being abe to appreciate and process an estheticay vauabe piece of writing and to cope with present-day socio-technoogica changes and chaenges (Livingstone, van Couvering, & Thumin, 2008). This is one of the reasons why the existence of the Word Wide Web and then aso the appearance of Web 2.0 have been paying a significant roe in forming iteracies. Web 2.0 is generay taken to encompass a variety of sites and toos for shared information creation and updating, and socia networking and communication (Bawden & Robinson, 2009). It enabes mass participation in socia activities. Users and their interests are represented in mediated spaces, which aso serve as an environment to activate engagement with others (Jarrett, 2008). New iteracies thus are tied to new technoogies, that is, ICTs. Whie this is true, they aso remain reated to cuture. The fact that being iterate aso denotes having erudition and being educated verifies this. However, even this boundary is of a dua nature as the Internet and other forms of information and communication technoogies are redefining the nature of reading, writing, and communication. ICTs wi continue to change in the years ahead, continuousy requiring new iteracies to expoit their potentia. Information iteracy aso shows these signs of being Janus-faced. Beyond recognizing that new iteracy skis and practices are required by each new ICT as it emerges and evoves, it is our responsibiity to integrate these new iteracies into the appropriate curricua (IRA, 2009). The dimensions of iteracy have broadened. The compexities of the current information environment require compicated and broad forms of iteracies that are not restricted to any particuar technoogy and that foster understanding, meaning, and context (Bawden, 2001). Literacies are mutipe, mutimoda, and mutifaceted (Coiro et a., 2008). Contemporary concepts of iteracy incude visua, eectronic, and digita forms of expression and communication. As its scope has broadened, iteracy is tied both to technoogy and cuture, and the abiity to become and remain iterate requires a ong-term commitment. Long-term commitment, usuay identified as ifeong earning, is the third attribute that aso strongy determines information iteracy (Cordes, 2009). According to Leu et a. (2007), our view of iteracy, imited to decoding and encoding, reading and writing, or even to producing texts of different genres appropriate to different situations, shoud be broadened to deveoping a set of composite skis that wi enabe earners to decode

13 The Nature of Information Literacy 71 and negotiate criticay the cutura, socia, poitica, and ideoogica aspects of anguage use. They aso argue for mutipe iteracies, which incude the abiity to use reading and writing skis in order to produce, understand, interpret, and criticay evauate mutimoda texts. Taking the concept of deixis, used by inguists to define words whose meanings change rapidy as their context changes, we can say that the meaning of iteracy has become deictic because we ive in an age of rapidy changing information and communication technoogies. Having been iterate in a word defined primariy by reativey static book technoogies does not ensure that we are fuy iterate today. To be iterate tomorrow wi be defined by newer technoogies that have not yet appeared (Leu et a., 2013). Literacy education is not about ski deveopment and deep competence, but it is about the institutiona shaping of socia practices and cutura resources, about inducting successive generations into particuar cutura, normative ways of handing texts, and about access to technoogies and artefacts (e.g., writing, the Internet) and to the socia institutions where these toos and artefacts are used (e.g., workpaces, civic institutions) Luke and Freebody (1999). The purposefu socia nature of this shaping activity comes to the fore when we underscore that iteracy means participating in understanding and composing meaningfu written, visua, and spoken texts, as we as using them functionay by negotiating the socia reations around them. This incudes the understanding that these functions shape the way texts are structured. Such understandings incude criticay anayzing and transforming texts (Luke & Freebody, 1999). When arguing for a broad view of information iteracy, we can put the accent on knowedge generation and take a knowedge management (KM) perspective, which considers information reated to tacit knowedge among other factors in the context of academia (Tirado & Muñoz, 2012). THE READING AND WRITING CONTEXT Information iteracy is cosey reated to reading iteracy, which, despite its name, invoves the integration of istening, speaking, reading, writing, and numeracy. It can be defined as an individua s abiity to understand printed text and communicate through print. These aso have a cose reationship with functiona iteracy, which most commony denotes the abiity to read and use information essentia for everyday ife (Bawden, 2001).

14 72 Research 2.0 and the Future of Information Literacy Peter Morvie, a pioneer and one of the best known figures of information architecture, findabiity, and user experience of research and practice, emphasizes that mastering the skis of written communication which, by definition, incudes reading and writing is required for efficienty functioning in modern society (Morvie, 2005). In a simiar vein, the High Leve Group on Literacy, commissioned by the European Union affirms that the digita word is centered on the written word. Even if digitization has added entirey new dimensions to our ways of connecting and communicating, the written word stands at the center of these new dimensions as the common denominator. This circumstance makes iteracy more and more interconnected with our ives in a digita word, where arge numbers of peope ack the necessary reading and writing skis to make use of it. Literacy competences thus become more centra to our work as we as our private and socia. In addition to this, the very nature of iteracy is changing, as the digita word requires higher-order probem-soving skis. Reading onine demands a greater abiity to evauate information criticay, avaiabe in unprecedented greater quantity and variety than ever before. There is aso a need for the abiity to extract and use knowedge from onine resources (EU, 2012). The necessary but not sufficient roes for the reader in a postmodern, text-based cuture are the foowing: code breaker; meaning maker; text user; text critic. The roe of the code breaker requires competence in coding and decoding. The prerequisite of being a meaning maker is semantic competence. Being a text user in this context presupposes that we have pragmatic competence. Not surprisingy, texts critics have to have critica competence (Luke & Freebody, 1999). In the atter case, perhaps the pura woud be better, i.e., critica competences. These roes do not seem to differ fundamentay from those of reading in a print environment. Coding and decoding enabes the use of texts and is overaid by the search for meaning. In research environments both print and digita part of the coding is different as the anguage of science is a unique hybrid that consists of natura anguage extended by and embedded in a anguage of meaningfu speciaized actions afforded by the technoogica environments in which science is conducted. The atter part of this

15 The Nature of Information Literacy 73 hybrid is much more a meaning-making system than a anguage in the inguistic sense (Lemke, 2004). Researchers are as much texts users and text producers as they are text critics. Whie this is aso true in the print environment, our focus on information iteracy and Research 2.0 dictates emphasizing that these roes shoud be and indeed are continued in digita environments, even if under different circumstances. The requirement of being a text critic points toward critica reading. However, before discussing it in more detai, et us direct attention toward the fact that, whie the actua processes of doing research work differ by discipine and institution, a of them invove a distinctive methodoogica orientation which vaues critica refection, the cumuative aggregation of knowedge and understanding, an emphasis on evidence and reiabiity, and the ethic of enquiry. The combination of these characteristics distinguishes the construction of schoary knowedge from other kinds of knowedge production such as factua knowedge, practica knowedge, common sense, moraity, or the wisdom of the crowd (Goodfeow, 2013). In the case of information iteracy, critica reading is required which is based on critica thinking. Athough critica reading is one of the abiities and activities enumerated above, its specia importance requires separate discussion. In his foundationa work on digita iteracy, Gister (1997) underines the view that critica thinking means distinguishing between content and its presentation. In 2013, the ACRL reinforced the beief that critica thinking has been centra to information iteracy, and that it continues to be a core vaue in teaching new iteracies (ACRL, 2013). If we foow the work of Jones (1996), other abiities required for critica thinking can be enumerated as foows: differentiating between fact and opinion; examining underying assumptions, incuding our own; ooking for expanations, causes, and soutions; being aware of faacious arguments, ambiguity, and manipuative reasoning; focusing on the whoe picture, whie examining the specifics; ooking for reputabe sources. Taking these into consideration, Beeson (2005) suggests a number of questions we can ask: What is the author trying to state (say, write)? Why are they stating it? Who ese is stating simiar or different things? Why shoud we beieve any of them?

16 74 Research 2.0 and the Future of Information Literacy A the above steps ead us toward an evauation of reiabiity, vaidity, accuracy, authority, timeiness, and point of view or bias as we as a recognition of prejudice, deception, or manipuation by examining and comparing information from various sources suppemented by an anaysis of the structure and ogic of the supporting arguments or methods (ACRL, 2000). Critica thinking raises compex questions about criticizing our own thinking, either from an egocentric or a socio-centric point of view (Eder, 2011). In the case of the researcher, it woud appear to be sef-expanatory that decisions reated to the domain of information iteracy are governed by socio-centric views defined by professiona communities (of knowedge) to which the individua is attached. Obviousy, a researcher has a number of persona motivations. Nonetheess, these atter seem to fa outside the sphere of decisions taken from the point of view of IL. According to Jones (1996), critica reading consists of: determining the purpose of the text and assessing how the centra caims are deveoped; making judgments about the intended audience of the text; distinguishing the different kinds of reasoning in the text; examining the evidence and sources of the writing; Lynch (1998) adds two more features: assessing bias; assessing accuracy. Besides the broader framework of information iteracy, critica reading appies to abstracting, which has its own compex reationship with IL. Put simpy, abstracting is the activity of writing abstracts that are texts that contain the most important content of existing, another texts in concise, condensed, and abbreviated form (Kotay, 2009). Despite this apparent simpicity, abstracting is one of the higher-eve activities of information iteracy as maintained by Pinto, Fernández-Ramos, and Doucet (2008). When we write abstracts, we have to concentrate on deciding what is important in a text. The extraction and summarizing of information pay an important roe in many forms and phases of communication (Loo & Chung, 2006), and the usefuness of abstracting from the point of view of IL is based on the fact that abstracting empoys decoding and encoding as we as critica reading (Guinn, 1979). Generay, we have to be aware of the fact that knowedge on abstracting pre-dates that on IL. In his book on abstracting, Cremmins (1982), for exampe, stresses the importance of critica reading, without even mentioning IL. Abstracts serve as important toos in decisions about reevance, thus

17 The Nature of Information Literacy 75 being information iterate supposes an abiity to find information and to compare it to the searcher s purpose and interests. In other words, information iteracy requires decisions on the reevance of information found in iterature searches. Abstracting, as an activity, fits we into the system of schoary communication because researchers who pubish papers in the schoary journas of their respective fieds of knowedge are usuay required to write abstracts of their own artices. The processes reated to writing these so-caed author abstracts does not seem have changed with new deveopments in scientific communication. Even though we are focusing on seecting information here, it has to be made cear that, as a resut of its compexity, abstracting aso means text production with the underying professiona activities of anaysis and synthesis (Aonso & Fernández, 2010). It is aso cosey reated to academic iteracy (Kotay, 2009; Ondrusek, Thiee, & Yang, 2013) that wi be addressed in the next section. As seen from the definitions and the above discussion, identifying, ocating, and evauating information, in other words information seeking, stands in the very heart of IL. Information seeking, however, is embedded in writing (Attfied, Bandford, & Dowe, 2003). Besides deveoping their capacity to understand and evauate the work of others, information iterate peope need skis in articuating and expaining their thoughts. They have to abe not ony to navigate the Web effectivey but aso to integrate new information into a persona corpus which is communicabe to others (Beeson, 2005, p. 216). Integrating new information with prior information and knowedge is undoubtedy crucia (Loo & Chung, 2006). Writing is infuenced by a whoe range of factors such as the broader situationa and pragmatic context in which the text production tasks are embedded and the circumstances of the immediate text production. Scientific texts are firmy embedded in the historicay and cuturay infuenced institution of science. The criteria of acting in a schoary community are based on this (Jakobs, 2003). As writing incudes organizing, storing, designing, and creating information, as we as communicating and distributing it, information iterate peope are unavoidaby writers as we as readers (Dashkin, 2003). Lynch (1998) adds to this insight that information iteracy incudes text authoring in a fu range of genres incuding visua and mutimedia communication.

18 76 Research 2.0 and the Future of Information Literacy From the perspective of writing, information seeking and information behavior in genera are embedded processes. Conversey, seen from the perspective of information seeking and information behavior, writing is a common motivating activity (Twidae, Gruzd, & Nichos, 2008). Refecting on texts incudes information seeking as an anaytic activity as any writer is devoted to the task of turning ideas into text. They then read the text to form new ideas and to make decisions about what has to be written (i.e., synthesized) and how it shoud be organized (Attfied, Bandford, & Dowe, 2003). Researchers writing activities are cosey reated to discipinary (discourse) communities and discipinary discourse. Hoschuh Simmons (2005, p. 297) summarizes what we know about discipinary discourse, incuding the ways in which members of a particuar discourse community write, read, speak, and research, as we as the assumptions that they make and the epistemoogies with which they craft their arguments. Academic writing is a pronouncement of membership in a particuar discourse community, which is not unchanging as researchers construct, reconstruct, and deconstruct the discourse of the given community with their contributions. Consequenty, this discourse is not static but is formed by negotiations between the estabished and dominant norms of the community and newy introduced perspectives. A substantia part of the time dedicated to research is dedicated to writing. Successfu academic writing, in genera, depends on the individua writer s projection of a shared professiona context. This is aso true for researchers, one of whose principa occupations is writing. Accordingy, there is interest in knowing how researchers fufi their writing functions (Hyand & Saager-Meyer, 2008). It woud be impossibe and perhaps unnecessary to give a fu picture of these functions here. Nevertheess, modern approaches to iteracy suggest that writers need to embed their writing in a particuar socia word. This behavior is a mediated interaction that comprises making use of communication channes and technoogies by purposefu activities (Scoon, 1998). According to Hyand and Saager-Meyer (2008), scientific writing has been studied principay from four perspectives. Appied inguists have argey focused on the informationa, rhetorica, cross-inguistic, and styistic organization of written texts for descriptive or pedagogic purposes. Librarians and ibrary and information science (LIS) researchers have focused on the

19 The Nature of Information Literacy 77 roe of texts in the cassification, manipuation, retrieva, and dissemination of information. Historians, incuding severa appied inguists, have been interested in the rhetorica evoution of the research artice. Socioogists have investigated the interactions between researchers to expore the processes which maintain socia order. The range of written academic genres studied incudes artice abstracts, scientific etters, acknowedgments, theses, book reviews, conference abstracts, as we as various other genres such as artice submission etters, grant proposas, and editors responses to journa submissions. As Hjørand (2002) points out, the achievements of composition studies and genre anaysis are fruitfu for LIS, not ony on the concrete but aso on the methodoogica eve. The atter is connected with the emphasis on the socia and historica dimensions of communication, incuding the concept of discourse communities (for instance in such foundationa works as John Swaes Genre Anaysis (Swaes, 1990)). Emphasis on discourse communities is one of the reasons why information iteracy education shows a number of commonaities with the Writing Across the Curricuum (WAC) movement and why both can benefit from coaborating with and earning from the other (Emborg, 2003). This movement views academic discipines as discourse communities, each with its own set of assumptions about how knowedge is produced, whie keeping in mind that new members of these communities have to do research and write ike the speciaists who inhabit these communities. WAC does not ose sight of socia conventions of research, incuding the ways of articuating discipinary knowedge as content. Last but not east, WAC stresses the diaogic nature of knowedge, that is, it is negotiated in the discussions, disputes, and disagreements of speciaists (Emborg, 2006). A different accent is set by inguistic investigations into abstracting (just mentioned above), which show that the success of author abstracts depends not ony on subject knowedge but aso on inguistic competence and knowedge of the appropriate structure of genres (Busch-Lauer, 1995; Cross & Oppenheim, 2006). This is true for scientific research and its genres in genera as we. Communicating information means not ony finding texts but aso recombining pre-existing information by seecting, arranging, and fitering, instead of creating origina texts (Geiser et a., 2001). This is one of the reasons why the nature of writing reated to research is often reproductive

20 78 Research 2.0 and the Future of Information Literacy in the sense that it requires schoars to possess a good muti-dimensiona synthetic thinking, which heps them create meaningfu new combinations from existing information. The framework for this thinking is given by reproduction iteracy (Eshet-Akaai, 2004, p. 98). According to Jakobs (2003), schoary communication often incudes reproductive writing that is characterized by the interaction of receptive, reproductive, and productive processes. It covers a forms of writing which invove the use of other texts. It may convey the contents of other texts, such as the writing of abstracts (mentioned on the previous page) or be part of more compex text production processes. Recourse to other texts in academic writing is not ony a possibiity, but it represents a prototypica and indispensabe constituent of text production, provided that oans from other texts are ceary identified as such. It is not by chance that academic iteracy incudes the cosey interreated issues of citing and pagiarism, which is in ine with requirements for those who are information iterate to use information ethicay (Bawden, 2001; Bundy, 2004a, 2004b). The pursuit of famiiar materia in a broader sense than reproductive writing is a typica feature of the information behavior of researchers. It occurs when an information seeker has some prior experience of the specific materia being sought. This may incude the investigation of journas recenty pubished in a given fied, sometimes paying specia attention to a certain paper. A researcher may find ony periphera reevance in that paper, then some time ater may rediscover and re-evauate the paper in ine with changes in emphasis in their research. Sometimes, it is ony a part of the paper, a singe argument or assertion that is important to them. Obviousy, researchers aso ook for new materia (Shenton, 2009). Bronshteyn and Baadad (2006) remind us that joining writing instruction with information iteracy education has to go beyond the issues of finding and citing resources. In the particuar case of paraphrasing exercises that they present, they stress that understanding and mastering the basic concepts of paraphrasing is key to evauating and effectivey using resources, two key tenets of information iteracy. An interesting perspective on the inguistic study of scientific writing begins with anayzing the strategies that boggers use to communicate scientific discourse in science bogs. The resuts of Luzón (2013) show a bending of discursive practices from different discourses. The strategies used invove adjusting information to the readers knowedge

21 The Nature of Information Literacy 79 and information needs, whie depoying inguistic features typica of persona, informa, and diaogic interaction. ADDITIONAL CONTEXTS AND TURNS: CULTURE, LIS, AND OTHERS First of a, we have to examine the cutura context of information iteracy. Cutura dynamism and diversity dictate that iteracies go beyond the traditiona basics of reading and writing, so iteracy comprises variabes and communication strategies that are in accordance with the cutures and socia anguages of technoogies, functiona groups, and types of organization (Cope & Kaantzis, 2009b). This is the reason why new iteracies, such as media iteracy, digita iteracy, and especiay information iteracy, form the basis of acquiring cuture in a wide sense, since they are broad in scope. They are tied not ony to cuture but aso to technoogy (Cordes, 2009). There is aso an interreation between active engagement in the cutura sphere and the uses of information, if we speak about information-as-thing (Buckand, 2012). In accordance with this, creating a cuture of semantic researchers requires that we accompany scientific training with education in data iteracy and information iteracy in order to estabish a new cutura standard, especiay because researchers often do not reaize that their own schoary communications constitute a primary source of data (Haende, Vasievsky & Wirz, 2012). (Data iteracy wi be addressed in more detai in the foowing section of this chapter). The norms of the discipinary communities mentioned above go far beyond the pressures of the pubish or perish cuture, which heaviy infuences the choices invoved in communicating research. The cuture of discipinary communities originates in their traditions, customs, practices, beiefs, and moras, as we as the symboic forms of communication (Emborg, 2006). Cuture can be interpreted as a compex of codes and meanings on which human communication depends (Buckand, 2012). In other words, we can speak about cuture as a compex whoe which incudes knowedge, beief, art, moras, aw, custom, and any other capabiities and habits acquired by man as a member of society (Tyor, 1871, p. 1). As a shared, earned, and symboic system of vaues, beiefs and attitudes, cuture shapes perception and behavior, and depends on the capacity for symboic thought and socia earning (Wison et a., 2011).

22 80 Research 2.0 and the Future of Information Literacy Accordingy, the abiity to understand data-based reasoning, aready mentioned in the section on researchers skis and abiities can be regarded as undoubtedy cutura in its nature. Communities of discipines define cuture in research settings. Big data aso has its cutura aspect, as it is a technoogica and schoary phenomenon that rests on the interpay of technoogy, anaysis, and mythoogy. The evidence of what cuture is made of is aso expressed in the naming conventions of iteracies. The Hungarian term, információs művetség shows that importance can be attached to being educated and erudite, which aso shows the infuence of thinking in terms of cuture. In addition, among the numerous Poish equivaents of information iteracy, we find the term kutura informacyjna (Kotay et a., 2010). If we transate the atter into Engish, it becomes information cuture. However, this understanding is not identica with the concept that bears the same name, but is attributed to effective information management in corporate settings. As outined by Oiver (2008), the atter understanding of information cuture is tied to the recognition and acceptance of societa and organizationa requirements for managing information. It takes attitudes toward sharing information into consideration. It recognizes the importance of utiizing information and communication technoogies and underines trust in written documentation. Having said this, it is apparent that despite obvious differences these atter features of information cuture do not sound out of pace when appied to information iteracy in research settings, which foows basicay the same preferences though in a different setting. The cutura nature of information iteracy is reinforced if we accept that iteracy is a form of cutura knowedge which enabes us to recognize and use anguage appropriate to different socia situations (Campbe, 1990). Therefore, provided that information iteracy is a way of functioning within compex communicative situations (Geiser et a., 2001), these situations are aso cutura in their character. On the other hand, we may agree that a main constituent of IL is cosey reated to information seeking, the essence of which is finding texts that answer our information needs. Yet, the connectedness of information iteracy to cuture does not end here. The discipinary cuture of researchers and information iteracy can aso be correated. Their interface is provided by a persona information cuture (PIC), defined as a system of knowedge and skis that may be used independenty for the optima satisfaction of information needs through the use of traditiona and new information technoogies (Gendina, 2008).

23 The Nature of Information Literacy 81 There are more though different contents in information iteracy. The examination of fairy rapid changes of direction are metaphoricay caed turns to focus attention on a new way of thinking (Bawden & Robinson, 2012) in LIS that aso provides a hepfu context that gives additiona insights into the nature of IL. Such moves may be caed not ony turns, but aso new paradigms, new perspectives, or new viewpoints (Noin, 2007). There are a number of different cassifications of these turns (Cronin, 2008; Noin & Åström, 2010). However, we wi concentrate ony on a seection. The most important turns that have characterized recent decades are the historica turn, the inguistic turn, the cognitive turn, the socioogica turn, and the socio-cognitive paradigm. We can say that the historica turn constitutes a search for the identity of LIS (Noin, 2007). The inguistic turn can be attributed to discursive approaches, preceded by a turn in phiosophy. It was foowed by the cognitive turn, which brought with it a shift from a focus on inguistic acts to individua thought processes (Bawden & Robinson, 2012). In other words, the cognitive turn focused on the cognition of information users and chaenged the dominance of traditiona approaches toward information retrieva (Cronin, 2008). This turn has been criticized by Noin (2007) for aienating researchers from a socioogica perspective, even though they woud view cognitive dimensions as basicay socia. As regards the socioogica turn, we can say that LIS has ong been receptive to socioogica thinking, so it is probaby miseading to speak of a socioogica turn but coud be named socia turn instead (Cronin, 2008). A centra point of the socio-cognitive paradigm (aso referred to as the domain anaytic paradigm) is the caim that toos, concepts, meaning, information structures, information needs, and reevance criteria are shaped in discourse communities (Hjørand, 2002). It recognizes that there is interpay between domain structures and individua knowedge, as we as an interaction between the individua and the socia eve (Hjørand & Abrechtsen, 1995). This paradigm changes the focus of LIS from individuas and computers to the socia, cutura, and scientific word. It aso impies that the reevant cognitive structures are deveoped historicay, cuturay, and sociay. One important impication of this paradigm is that the reevant cognitive structures are of a historica rather than of a physioogica nature (Hjørand, 2002).

24 82 Research 2.0 and the Future of Information Literacy Robinson (2009) underines the view that the socio-cognitive paradigm avoids the overty systems approach, common in the eary days of LIS, as we as the subjective and persona individua cognition approach. Indeed, Hjørand and Abrechtsen (1995) present this paradigm as an aternative to psychoogizing or concentrating on IT issues. The reationship between IL and these turns is reativey compex and we can approach this question from different directions. This compexity is exempified by the viewpoint of Johnston and Webber (2005). When proposing information iteracy as a soft appied discipine, they use Vannevar Bush s vision of the technoogicay connected and enabed researcher, giving specia attention to speciaization. The four approaches to information iteracy, devised by Sundin (2008) and described in more detai in the chapter on shifting approaches to information iteracy aso iustrate its paradigms. If we recognize the vaidity of the socio-cognitive paradigm for LIS, the cosest approach to IL is the communicative one. This approach is characterized by Sundin (2008, pp ) as foows: It chaenges the portraya of information seeking as an individua process. In contrast to the process approach, information seeking is here understood as socia practices embedded in other socia practices, which occur in institutiona contexts. Among the issues that the communication approach foregrounds are the importance of interaction between users in information seeking, the reation between cognitive authority and source evauation, and the significance of socia navigation. Last, but not east, we can affirm that if LIS focuses on seecting, organizing, storing, retrieving, disseminating, and using information, then information iteracy represents a mixture of LIS and education as it aso ooks at teaching and earning (Bower & Large, 2008). The communication chain in information science is deepy infuenced by computing (Bawden & Robinson, 2012), as are information iteracy and Research 2.0. The question is whether ubiquitous computing and the increasing socia dimension of networked media can bring in something that takes us beyond bogs, twitter feeds, and so forth, and make possibe something truy coaborative something ike the super-critica thinking that is generative of ideas, modes of thought, theories, and new practices (Berry, 2011, p. 8). If our previous context was metatheoretica, the next is based on practice, at east in its name and orientation. It is evidence-based practice (EBP), which has a number of connections to IL. Adams (2014) shows this by comparing two foundationa texts of EBP. He found that the outcomes

25 The Nature of Information Literacy 83 described in the ACRL Standards provide a foundation for EBP and IL skis are highy vaued by evidence-based practitioners. As regards the evauation of information quaity, Adams asserts that EBP de-emphasizes expert opinion and the authority of the researcher, whie ibrarians use the authority of the information creator as a marker of quaity. This is true despite the fact that the ACRL Standards direct attention to the abiity to anayze the structure and ogic of supporting arguments or methods. On the other hand, EBP works with information aready vetted through peer review, so information creators can be judged as authoritative by most observers. Some of the information that academic ibrarians dea with are not amenabe to the statistics-based evauation that is the focus of critica appraisa in EBP. Moreover, ibrarians use of authority as a primary marker of quaity may be an artefact of coection deveopment poicies that were created to squeeze the most vaue from a finite budget, and, for print formats, imited shef space (ACRL, 2000, p. 242). When speaking about the reationship between IL and the researcher, we have to give attention to information stye. As Johnston and Webber (2003) stress, IL is the adoption of appropriate information behavior. Consequenty, it is not by accident that information stye can pay an important roe in it. According to Steinerová (2010), information stye is based on the anaysis of an individua s information seeking preferences and perceptions, and the characteristics of their use of eectronic resources. Two main styes can be identified: the pragmatic and the anaytic. The former is dominant and is characterized by preferences for simpe access to information, simpe organization of knowedge, ow cost, and fast access to eectronic resources. Its representatives woud not read extensive texts because they are experientia earners. Those who represent the anaytic stye show deeper inteectua information processing. Reiabiity and verification of information are important for them. They use mutidiscipinary terminoogy and assess information by its reevance, having experience in judging it. They use compex queries in contrast to intuitive, simpe ones. Organization of information is integrative, based on expert knowedge and experience. The anaytic stye requires inteectua processing and the presence of doubts and interpretation is stressed instead of navigation. In our opinion, the pragmatic stye is compatibe with amateurism, thus has a pace in pubic ibrary environments, whie the anaytic stye is the idea for academic users and iteracies geared toward their needs shoud

26 84 Research 2.0 and the Future of Information Literacy show preferences for this information stye. If not, we are taking the risk that the aready existing ack of critica thinking within academia wi be aggravated (Head & Eisenberg, 2009). By emphasizing being critica, information iteracy and reated iteracies give attention to cognitive authority, which has two eves. At an operationa eve, cognitive authority is the extent to which users think that they can trust the information. On a more genera eve, cognitive authority refers to infuences that a user woud recognize as proper because the given piece of information is thought to be credibe and worthy of beief (Rieh, 2002). The idea of cognitive authority can be traced back to Second-Hand Knowedge, a semina work of Patrick Wison who reminds us that a arge portion of what individuas know about the word comes from other peope. Foowing the thoughts of Wison, Rieh (2002, p. 146) defines cognitive authority as infuences that a user woud recognize as proper because the information therein is thought to be credibe and worthy of beief. Cognitive authority comes in two forms: a eve of trust can be granted in the information communicated by a person or contained in a particuar source. Obviousy we know that researchers use recorded information, thus they rey on facts that are contained in information sources. On the other hand as we have aready pointed out above it is known that informa communication pays a significant roe in their information acquisition. In any case, motivation and cognitive abiity pay a significant roe in guiding information assessment and decision-making, and are a main component in buiding up the skis needed to determine the quaity or credibiity of information. This is especiay true for digita iteracy (Metzger, 2007), but the communication approach to information iteracy aso stresses the reation between cognitive authority and source evauation (Sundin, 2008). It is aso a constituent of information horizons that map information sources (Steinerová, 2010). The nature of digita iteracy wi be discussed on in the next section, on page 85. LITERACIES BEYOND INFORMATION LITERACY We cannot compain that there are not enough types of iteracy. Snavey and Cooper (1997) provided 34 iteracy terms. Their exampes incude: agricutura iteracy; cinematic iteracy;

27 The Nature of Information Literacy 85 dance iteracy; geographic iteracy; ega iteracy; workpace iteracy. In his widey cited review, Bawden (2001) enumerates six extensivey used terms reated to information iteracy which are often used synonymousy with each other. computer iteracy: synonyms IT iteracy, information technoogy iteracy, and eectronic iteracy; eectronic information iteracy; ibrary iteracy; media iteracy; network iteracy: synonyms Internet iteracy, hyper-iteracy; digita iteracy (with its synonym digita information iteracy). Meanwhie, the conceptua universe of information iteracy is expanding unstoppaby and uncontroaby. Visioning the future, Ridey devised post-iteracy, defining it as the state in which reading and writing are no onger a dominant means of communication (Ridey, 2012), whie Kress is taking about visua objects instead of etters and screens instead of books (Kress, 2003). We have aso had a coorfu transiteracy approach since 2005 (which was originay coined to support the cross-sectiona approach of communication patforms and ater deveoped into the 3 T -paradigm: teaching, technoogy, and transiteracy). As a unified construct that supports the acquisition, production, and sharing of knowedge in coaborative onine communities, metaiteracy was born to promote critica thinking and coaboration in a digita age, providing a comprehensive framework to effectivey participate in socia media and onine communities. 2 (See aso the section on overarching iteracies.) It is aso very common to identify new information iteracies in various contexts, such as, for exampe, writing studies (Shepherd & Goggin, 2012). Nevertheess, the common nature of every activity reated to information is invariant: visua representation as information input, processing in the brain, and objectivation (exformation) as information output. Therefore, the changing nature and compexity of information iteracy is not situated within a cognitive or technoogica framework, but in the fied of transformationa socia practice, embedded into the digitay 2 Metaiteracy:

28 86 Research 2.0 and the Future of Information Literacy mediated cutura environment. This aso means that the architectures, services, soutions, toos, and gadgets of the universe of future information and communication technoogies are important. However, the changing patterns and structure of everyday ife are decisive. Putting it the other way around: new iteracies are required for successfu participation in an increasingy technoogicay mediated society (Forte et a., 2014). This is the reason why the term transformationa iteracies was born in order to prepare users for ife, and to hep them see connections between working hard as readers and writers (Berger et a., 2014). Andrea Forte proposed a new framework which highights the critica dimensions of information iteracy, whie simutaneousy indicating the main directions of change on two axes as shown in Tabe 1. It is amost impossibe to compose a fu, overa, perfect cassification system of every form of iteracy because of the dynamic nature of the fied. The emerging iteracies become new, the new iteracies become od, whie the od iteracies are continuousy augmented with new features and reevancies. New sets of iteracies can be brought into the discourse in order to assist in understanding its disruptive nature. These iteracies are newborn, transforming, hybrid, and hyperpeope iteracies. We hope that this enriched conceptua framework wi infuence not ony iteracy debates, but aso raise the awareness and stimuate the design of new inteectua, educative and work environments, refreshing pedagogy or training practices. The reason behind the birth of brand new iteracy types is not ony the cumuative reocation of the basic forms of activity and transaction into the digita ecosystem but aso the overfow of cosed, professiona knowedge Tabe 1 Consumption Approach to Production Dynamics of information iteracy deveopment Socia Educating peope to find and use information we Educating peope to create and contribute information sources Forte et a. (2014); used by permission. Literacy skis Technoogica Designing information systems that hep peope to find and use information we Transforming practice Designing information systems that hep peope to create and contribute information sources

29 The Nature of Information Literacy 87 sets, creating casua, everyday, trivia versions and generating a kind of wave of iteracy emancipation. The pioneering fied of financia iteracy has evoved into the abiity to make informed decisions about how to use and ater how to manage our money and financia transactions onine, incuding saving, banking, budgeting, smart shopping tips, understanding types of oans and credit and how to manage debt, investing and financia panning, choosing suitabe mobie phone pans, avoiding scams and rip-offs, and expains the basics about insurance and superannuation Heaey (2010). Lega iteracy was born as an ordinary digita iteracy of awyers and students of aw schoos (Margois & Murray, 2012), whie psycho-iteracy was introduced, especiay to students, as the genera knowedge of basic terms and concepts within the psychoogica community (Boneau, 1990). A few years ater, the concept was extended to egay and psychoogicay iterate citizens (Dunn, 2011; Mair, Tayor & Hume, 2013). Currenty, it is more than important for every netizen to identify, know, and understand the egay sensitive fieds found in typica onine activity forms, and the psychoogicay sensitive found in person-to-person onine communication. The exposion of heath information for patients and heath practitioners as we as other digita heath toos and appications (Behrman, 2012) prompted the change from heath awareness to heath iteracy. This marked a step up from just ooking at heath information, and moves toward a mode that invoves behavior changes and digita interaction with and between patients (Fink, 2014). The junior concept of futures iteracy was coined primariy to enhance the ski-set of poicy-makers (Mier, 2011). However, the anticipatory systems and modes, incuding the techniques of scenario making, have meant that everyone is abe to get better decisions, and are avaiabe for civi organizations, oca communities, interest groups, and even individuas. The second custer of emerging iteracies consists of significanty improved versions of earier iteracy forms, foowing the inherent changes within the given domains, whie refecting the extended payground of activity forms as part of the gradation from the receptive to a receptive and productive nature. Visua iteracy (or visuacy), as a conceptua approach to graphic probem-soving (Wide & Wide, 1991), has been transformed into a more compex form using comic books, graphic noves, anime, cartoons,

30 88 Research 2.0 and the Future of Information Literacy and more to deveop comprehension and thinking skis (Frey & Fisher, 2008). Foowing the revoution in everyday information architecture and infographics, graphicacy (Adrich & Sheppard, 2000) is increasingy becoming infographicacy, and a part of broader design iteracy (Heer, 2014). Game iteracy entered the vocabuary of academics and teachers to take seriousy the serious pay of young peope anaysing games and the word of games as text (Beavis et a., 2012). A few years ater, serious games became integra parts of earning environments, whie gamification, the use of game thinking, and game mechanics in non-game contexts arose and spread in company and big organizationa environments (Deterding et a., 2011). This idea ed to the emergence of gamification iteracy, that is, gamificacy. Socia media stimuate participation in pubic and semi-pubic spaces accompanied by a new abiity: participatory (participation) iteracy. Foowing the shift in emphasis from discussions to rea-word interventions and from interaction to decision-making competency and responsibe execution, the operative part of socia actions estabished a new iteracy set: operacy. This incudes the abiities needed for agenda setting, strategic panning, managing conficts, or sharing tasks. In a wider sense, we can speak about the abiity to create pubic content. This eads to content creacy. As this book focuses on research, emphasis has to be put on scientific iteracy (on page 89) which wi be addressed ater. Simiary, there wi be a detaied expanation of the nature and importance of data iteracy. Data and game iteracies can easiy form hybrids with other iteracies, since data can be found everywhere and there are amost no imits to gamification in these environments. The combination of heath iteracy and numeracy is important to understand, evauate, and use numbers to make informed heath care choices (French, 2014). There are many good exampes iustrating how gamification coud infuence cinicians practice (Miiard, 2014) and patients behavior (King et a., 2013). Scientific infographics has aso become popuar, since data visuaizations can assist in the understanding of the conceptua and the practica and communicate scientific resuts (Jackson, 2014). Furthermore, we aso have a ong record of combining scientific earning with games (Hiton & Honey, 2011). Discipinary differences in information iteracy practices aso appear. Whie a substantia part of any IL program that is directed toward researchers must be the same, irrespective of whether they work in the natura sciences, the socia sciences, or the humanities, the specificity of a given fied has to be taken into consideration. It is enough to mention that work in

31 The Nature of Information Literacy 89 the humanities is more cosey tied to documents than the activities of any other researchers. Being connected is refected in the information iteracy syabus for humanities researchers designed by East (2005). This program is divided into two parts: the first addresses genera skis, whie the second is about specific formats. The starting point to identify genera skis is thinking about how information is disseminated in the given discipine and where this information is ocated. In other words, those working in the humanities have to understand how information is disseminated in their discipine. Accordingy, researchers shoud be abe to identify the physica or virtua repositories which contain significant coections of reevant materias. The next eement of the syabus directs attention to the fact that the approach to identifying appropriate print and eectronic bibiographic toos has changed in the time that has eapsed since the pubication of East s paper. In fact practicay a decade has gone by, which has brought a reiance on search engines, in particuar on Googe. This primacy aso characterizes Googe Schoar to an extent, though it can aso be regarded as a kind of bibiographic too (Asher, Duke, & Wison, 2013). Not to forget that the iterature on the information habits of humanists has traditionay stressed that schoars have made ony imited use of major abstracting and indexing journas (East, 2005). The statements made in 2005 about searching databases effectivey are, mutatis mutandis, sti vaid. If there were disparities among researchers in their searching abiities, they did not disappear, even though their nature may have changed. This reminds us of the situation described by Herman and Nichoas (2010), according to whom present-day information seekers consistenty demonstrate characteristic patterns of unproductive information behavior. (See the section on disintermediation and re-intermediation). Last, but not east, we can add that keeping up to date in their fied and estabishing a network of contacts remains of perpetua vaue and forms a continuing practice for researchers. There are a number of other iteracies we have to take into consideration. Some have been mentioned in the section, entited How many iteracies are there? The iteracies that appear beow are those that are apparenty most cosey connected with research activities. These are scientific iteracy and academic iteracy. Scientific iteracy comprises the methods, approaches, attitudes, and skis reated to thinking scientificay and doing research. We can aso add to this

32 90 Research 2.0 and the Future of Information Literacy that anyone who has acquired scientific iteracy is abe to understand artices about research in the popuar press and engage in socia conversation about the vaidity of their concusions (NAS, 1996). This impies that everyone shoud be scientificay iterate, even if ony a sma number of graduate students become researchers. Academic iteracy is more cosey associated with forma earning, especiay in higher education. Norgaard (2003) characterizes iteracy as a cuturay situated phenomenon based on the way that communities construct meaning and beonging. This is especiay true for academic iteracy, which invoves the comprehension of the entire system of thinking, vaues, and information fows of academia. A this is based on a cutura identity among academics in which professiona anguage and iterature pay a key roe. In this system, information has a grammatica dimension that information iterate academics must master (Emborg, 2006). In higher education, iteracy has aways incuded knowedge and skis that go beyond the abiity to read and write. It encompasses the skis needed for identifying appropriate materias for study, whie presupposing discipine-specific reading and writing skis in order to be critica and articuate. Having said this, we have to acknowedge that the journey toward today s iteracy is compicated and crosses a shifting terrain where technoogies and associated practices are constanty changing. Accounts of iteracy in onine environments have to take into consideration that the acts of communicating and interpreting are not neutra and rey more on sociay constructed reationships than on technoogica affordances. It is reativey easy to see that both iteracies mentioned above are prerequisites of becoming a researcher and fufiing the researcher s roe. It seems to be cear as we that these two iteracies compement one another and, at the same time, are strongy dependent on information iteracy, at east in research environments. The essence of academic iteracy is the abiity to read, interpret, and produce information vaued in academia according to beiefs about how research shoud be done (Emborg, 2006, p. 196). As mentioned above, these communities are different from the amateur ones on the grounds of the significance of their distinguished credentias and authorship. Friesen (2010) indicates that in commercia socia networks, there is a ack of critica comparing and contrasting of different views. In a broader sense, academic iteracy shoud aso incude the abiity to discern predatory open access journas that seek to expoit the author-pays open access mode to gain profit, without iving up to the standards of

33 The Nature of Information Literacy 91 schoary pubishing. To achieve this is much easier for experienced researchers, who usuay know the best and most prestigious journas in their fieds. Younger researchers who are new to pubishing journa papers face a reativey difficut situation as they do not usuay have this advantage. There are some indications to ook out for that demonstrate the ow quaity of these journas. For exampe, behind them there are no weestabished and reiabe pubishers or pubishers associated with universities or earned societies. They apparenty have editoria boards, but these often do not pay any effective roe in the decision to pubish particuar papers. Fake journas may have no peer review at a, or do not do it propery, as suggested by the suspiciousy short deadines for peer-reviewing manuscripts (Mehrpour & Khajavi, 2014). Media iteracy is often mentioned aongside information iteracy. Potter (2004) defines media iteracy as the set of perspectives from which we expose ourseves to the media and interpret the meaning of the messages we encounter. Simiar to information iteracy, media iteracy accentuates critica evauation. It acknowedges both the reception and production of media (EC, 2009) and incudes the interpretation of a types of compex, mediated symboic texts made avaiabe by traditiona or eectronic (digita) means (Livingstone, 2004). This demonstrates the reevance of media iteracy for a wide array of media, incuding research data. We can aso incude the convergence among iteracies, which is caused by the convergence of different forms of media and ICT (Livingstone et a., 2008). Making use of the Web of Science database, Lee and So (2014) have expored the reationship between media iteracy and information iteracy. They ooked for occurrences of the key words information iteracy and media iteracy from 1956 to Their findings show that the two fieds have different authors, affiiations, and pubication venues. The authors academic origin, scope, and socia concerns are aso different. Information iteracy has a coser tie to LIS, but the two fieds adopt different anaytica approaches. Lee and So state that media iteracy cannot be regarded to be a subset of information iteracy, even though the two fieds share the same goas. Nonetheess, the arguments of Badke (2009) are vaid, as he warned about the danger of iving in sios, emphasizing that separation is a hurde that these iteracies must overcome so that they can pay a foundationa roe in today s education. Kotay (2011) aso comments that media iteracy has to find its essentia roe in education as one aspect of some kind of mutipe or mutimoda iteracy.

34 92 Research 2.0 and the Future of Information Literacy It is not just the quantity of media exposure that justifies the importance of media iteracy. A of us have experienced the heavy presence and infuence of the different media that more recenty has incuded the Internet. The vita roe of information in the deveopment of democracy, cutura participation, and active citizenship aso justifies our interest and these features draw media iteracy near to information iteracy. In the contemporary media environment, users and their interests are represented in mediated spaces, which aso serve as an environment to activate engagement with others (Jarrett, 2008). Media iteracy aso takes into account that media is constructed and constructs reaity. Therefore it consists of the foowing competencies: A media iterate person and everyone shoud have the opportunity to become one can decode, evauate, anayze and produce both print and eectronic media. The fundamenta objective of media iteracy is critica autonomy reationship to a media. Emphases in media iteracy training range widey, incuding informed citizenship, aesthetic appreciation and expression, socia advocacy, sef-esteem, and consumer competence Aufderheide (1992). The definition adopted by severa organizations in the European Union aso stresses the critica aspect as we as acknowedging both the reception and production of media. Media iteracy is generay defined as the abiity to access the media, to understand and to criticay evauate different aspects of the media and media contents and to create communications in a variety of contexts EP (2007). In accordance with this definition, the various eves of media iteracy incude: feeing comfortabe with a existing media from newspapers to virtua communities; activey using media through, inter aia, interactive teevision, use of Internet search engines or participation in virtua communities; and better expoiting the potentia of media for entertainment, access to cuture, intercutura diaog, earning and daiy-ife appications (for instance, through ibraries, podcasts); having a critica approach to media as regards both quaity and accuracy of content (e.g., being abe to assess information, deaing with advertising on various media, using search engines inteigenty); using media creativey, as the evoution of media technoogies and the increasing presence of the Internet as a distribution channe aow an

35 The Nature of Information Literacy 93 ever growing number of Europeans to create and disseminate images, information, and content; understanding the economy of media and the difference between puraism and media ownership; being aware of copyright issues, which are essentia for a cuture of egaity, especiay for the younger generations in their doube capacity of being consumers and producers of content (EP, 2007). For IL authors, their main information objects are peer-reviewed and evauated pubications, such as academic books and journas. In contrast, media iteracy focuses on mass media such as newspapers and teevision that are typified by having ess source vaidation because of the rapid production that characterizes them (Lau, 2013). Let us add that there is news iteracy, which aims to offer toos for the deveopment of the critica thinking skis necessary to evauate the veracity of what we receive through 24-h news channes, socia media, and other onine sources of information (Dowing, 2013). As said above, media iteracy and information iteracy partiay overap and compement each other, as both basicay aim to foster the same skis (Lau, 2013). Taking this into account, information iteracy and media iteracy have recenty been couped with each other under the umbrea concept of media and information iteracy. For instance, the Word Summit on the Information Society advocated the promotion of information and media iteracy, regarding them as indispensabe individua skis for peope in the increasing information fow (WSIS, 2013). The definition of media and information iteracy is basicay identica to the definition of information iteracy. It consists of the knowedge, the attitudes, and the sum of the skis needed to know when and what information is needed; where and how to obtain that information; how to evauate it criticay and organise it once it is found; and how to use it in an ethica way (IFLA, 2011). The Moscow Decaration on Media and Information Literacy adds that media and information iterate individuas can use diverse media, information sources, and channes in their private, professiona, and pubic ives (IFLA, 2012). We have to take into consideration the aready mentioned convergence among iteracies caused by the convergence between different forms of media and ICTs (Livingstone et a., 2008). This move is not surprising, and we may agree with Carbo (2013), who asserts that information iteracy and

36 94 Research 2.0 and the Future of Information Literacy other reated iteracies are undergoing a transformation which may resut in the emergence of a new paradigm of its own. She adds that instead of ooking at the many differences among the various perspectives this new paradigm, with its broader perspective integrating the many different forms of iteracy, shoud be expored in much more depth. Referring to the exposion in user-generated media which wi be fuy fet in the workpace, Davies, Fider, and Gorbis (2011) speak about new-media iteracy. They define it as the abiity to criticay assess and deveop content that uses new-media forms, incuding videos, bogs, and podcasts. New-media iteracy aso means everaging these media for persuasive communication. Data iteracy pertains to the custer of emerging iteracies mentioned above. We find it at the intersection between schoary communication and information iteracy (ACRL, 2013). Data is no onger imited to quantitative resuts drawn from experiments or surveys, so humanities and socia science researchers represent a new constituency for data iteracy education (ACRL, 2013). This expanding view of what we mean by data, couped with the growing importance of research data mentioned above, has brought with it the growth in the need for data iteracy. The concept of data iteracy is not entirey new. However, new and emerging roes have infuenced its nature to a substantia extent. The burring of boundaries between information and data are aso having a determining effect. In fact, they never have been rigid, as information iteracy has aways been interested in the proper understanding and use of data that is converted into information (Schneider, 2013). Data iteracy enabes individuas to access, interpret, criticay assess, manage, hande, and ethicay use data. Managing, as it appears in this definition, comprises preservation and curation (Cazada Prado & Marza, 2013). Mandinach and Gummer (2013, p. 30) define data iteracy as the abiity to understand and use data effectivey to inform decisions. They add that it is a specific ski set and knowedge base that enabes us to transform data into information and utimatey into actionabe knowedge. Data iteracy skis incude knowing how to identify, coect, organize, anayze, summarize, and prioritize data. The ast two skis are especiay worthy of attention as they are the skis that do not appear in other ists. Deveoping hypotheses, identifying probems, interpreting the data, and determining, panning, impementing, as we as monitoring courses of action are aso necessary skis that are among the requirements for taioring data iteracy to its specific uses.

37 The Nature of Information Literacy 95 This set of definitions refects a systemic cutura change in the importance, purposes, anguage, skis, and processes of data management (Varve & Shen, 2013). It is aso congruent with the opinion of Qin and D Ignazio, according to whom science data iteracy though named differenty emphasizes the abiity to understand, use, and manage science data. These definitions aso subsume the reasoning of the Association of Coege and Research Libraries (2013), which voted for the term data iteracy. Their approach focuses on understanding how to find and evauate data, emphasizes the given version of the data set and the person responsibe for it, and does not negect the questions of citing and ethica use of data. According to the ACRL, data iteracy is a iteracy conceived for those who wi use the data and wi need educating about how to understand and interpret them. This iteracy concentrates on ownership and rights issues, and cuts across discipinary boundaries and the traditiona structures of academic ibrary organizations. Such an approach to data iteracy shows simiarities with media iteracy by the use and reuse of content in ways not imagined by its origina creator. There are a number of reasons why we need data iteracy. However, perhaps the most important factor is that we are witnessing a widespread beief that the existence and access to research data, in particuar to big data, offers a higher form of inteigence and knowedge. There is an aura of truth, objectivity, and accuracy around it, as we. Big data is seen as a soution to many burning questions, which may raise suspicion. On the other hand, it is often regarded as a too that threatens privacy and decreases civi freedoms, ushering in increased state and corporate contro. The shifts to be expected of big data are probaby more subte than these, even though we cannot see this ceary among our current hopes and fears (Boyd & Crawford, 2012). This eads to the concusion that one of the most important goas of data iteracy education shoud be to foster the critica thinking that wi keep us away from the pitfas of being overy optimistic or unduy pessimistic, or behaving in an excessivey critica or uncritica way. Data iteracy shoud take into consideration the framework of future work skis and abiities outined by Davies et a. (2011). The first, data-based reasoning, we have aready mentioned. The need for being critica is no different from other iteracies, so it occupies a specia pace among the genera features of data iteracy. It incudes pacing emphasis on the given version of the data set and identifying the person responsibe for it (ACRL, 2013).

38 96 Research 2.0 and the Future of Information Literacy On the other hand, there are additiona features, such as understanding what data means, incuding how to read graphs and charts appropriatey, drawing correct concusions from data, and recognizing when data is being used in miseading or inappropriate ways, that are aso constituent of data iteracy. The main fieds where the core competencies of data iteracy can be used are as foows: databases and data formats; discovery and acquisition of data; data management and organization (incuding the ife cyce of data and standard operating procedures for data management and documentation); data conversion and interoperabiity (deaing with the risks and potentia oss or corruption of information caused by changing data formats); quaity assurance; metadata; data curation and reuse; cutures of practice (incuding discipinary vaues and norms and data standards); data preservation; data anaysis; data visuaization; ethics, incuding citation of data (Carson et a., 2011). Data iterate peope (users, researchers, and ibrarians) have to know how to seect and synthesize data and combine it with other information sources and prior knowedge. They have to recognize source data vaue, types, and formats; determine when data is needed; and access data sources appropriate to the information needed. Data iteracy seems akin to information iteracy as panning, organizing, and assessing ourseves throughout the process are vita and the abiity of presenting quantitative information in different and appropriate forms aso has to be emphasized (Cazada Prado & Marza, 2013). The above sequence of steps is cosey associated with the we-known and widey accepted definition of information iteracy, according to which information iterate peope are abe to recognize when information is needed. They are aso abe to identify, ocate, evauate, and use information to sove a particuar probem (ALA, 1989). As said, data management in genera and the quaity of data in particuar for data citation are of significance for data iteracy. Tracing back data provenance and its justification (Buckand, 2011) are components of data iteracy through data quaity. The former incudes the tracking of a contexts and

39 The Nature of Information Literacy 97 transformations which the data has gone through and is of key importance to verifying the authenticity and reiabiity of data fies (Ramírez, 2011). Data iteracy shoud aso incude answers to the question of openness, primariy open data as advocated by a number of researchers in order to make science more accountabe (Stuart, 2011). From other reated fieds, where data iteracy competencies can be potentiay used, the foowing must be mentioned: data anaysis; data visuaization; deaing with the risks and potentia oss or corruption of information (Carson et a., 2011). Cazada Prado and Marza (2013) emphasize the importance of knowing how to seect and synthesize data and combine them with other information sources and prior knowedge. They aso enumerate the foowing abiities: to identify the context in which data are produced and reused (data ifecyce); to recognize source data vaue, types, and formats; to determine when data are needed; to access data sources appropriate to the information needed; to criticay assess data and their sources; to determine and use suitabe research methods; to hande and anayze data; to present quantitative information (specific data, tabes, graphs, in reports and simiar); to appy resuts to earning, decision-making, or probem-soving; to pan, organize, and sef-assess throughout the process. It is not by accident that context is mentioned in the above ist in the first pace. Context is uttery important. Dissociation of data from its context and the oss of context make reuse difficut, or impossibe (Schneider, 2013). From the content of a series of instructiona sessions on socio- economic data described by Wong (2010), we can singe out three aspects. The first aspect is exporing data evauation and use. The second one is guiding students in understanding data-coection methods and dissemination channes. The third aspect is introducing students to different in formation needs that are fufied by data. As service providers, data ibrarians shoud be acquainted with quantitative research methods which enabe them to process and anayze research data. To be abe to provide support for researchers, they have to possess an

40 98 Research 2.0 and the Future of Information Literacy extensive understanding of scientific data sources which wi enabe them to recommend comprehensive and reiabe data sources (Si et a., 2013). As we have aready underined, and as Lee (2013) aso emphasizes, many nove and compound iteracy concepts have appeared to face the chaenges brought about by the changes in the new socia and technoogica environments. These iteracies are aso often caed overarching iteracies or twenty-first century competencies. A the iteracies that have been discussed in the previous sections fit we into the framework of metaiteracy, which is undoubtedy an overarching concept as it provides the foundation for media iteracy, digita iteracy, and other iteracies, and fosters both critica thinking and participation via socia media. Metaiteracy is a sef-referentia and comprehensive framework that informs these other iteracy types. It provides the foundation for media iteracy, digita iteracy, and other iteracies, and emphasizes content. According to Mackey and Jacobson (2011, p. 62): Metaiteracy promotes critica thinking and coaboration in a digita age, providing a comprehensive framework to effectivey participate in socia media and onine communities. It is a unified construct that supports the acquisition, production, and sharing of knowedge in coaborative onine communities. They aso add the foowing: Metaiteracy expands the scope of information iteracy as more than a set of discrete skis, chaenging us to rethink information iteracy as active knowedge production and distribution in coaborative onine communities. (p. 64) Witek and Grettano (2014) are of the opinion that metaiteracy has acquired an even greater significance for reframing information iteracy in today s information environment. They assume that a fuy reaized theory of information iteracy, the foundation of which is metaiteracy, incudes a meta-awareness of what we do with information and why. The next overarching iteracy is transiteracy that comprises the abiity to read, write, and interact across a range of patforms, toos, and media. It intends to be concerned with understanding and expaining the meaning of being iterate in the twenty-first century. Whie it is an overarching concept, it is not meant to repace any of the format-specific iteracies. It attempts to understand the reationship among them instead. Transiteracy maps meaning across different media, in the interaction among different iteracies. It is not concerned with deveoping particuar iteracies about particuar media. It anayzes the socia uses of technoogy by

41 The Nature of Information Literacy 99 focusing on the reationship between peope and technoogy, most specificay socia networking. However, it is not tied to any particuar technoogy. Due to this hoistic nature of transiteracy, it is chaenging to define what specific skis are necessary to engage with it. Attention to transiteracy is especiay worthwhie as, by exporing the participatory nature of new means of communicating, it intends to break down the barriers between academia and the wider community (Ipri, 2010). The object of both information iteracy and digita iteracy is invariaby the same, that is, information. However, information iteracy mobiizes the abiities and skis reated to finding, retrieving, anayzing, and using information. In contrast, digita iteracy not ony accentuates its creation but aso emphasizes the use of digita technoogy (Qin & D Ignazio, 2010). The concept of digita iteracy in its present understanding was introduced by Gister (1997). However, he was not the first to use this expression. It had been appied in the 1990s to denote the abiity to read and comprehend hypertext (Bawden, 2001). Gister expained digita iteracy as an abiity to understand and to use information from a variety of digita sources without concern for the different competence ists, often criticized as being restrictive. The four core competencies of digita iteracy are: Internet searching; hypertext navigation; knowedge assemby; content evauation (Bawden, 2008). Martin s definition of digita iteracy emphasizes both its wide meaning and the roe of media. Digita Literacy is the awareness, attitude and abiity of individuas to appropriatey use digita toos and faciities to identify, access, manage, integrate, evauate, anayze and synthesize digita resources, construct new knowedge, create media expressions, and communicate with others, in the context of specific ife situations, in order to enabe constructive socia action; and to refect upon this process Martin (2006, p. 19). A distinctive feature of digita iteracy is expressed by Bawden (2008, p. 26): Digita iteracy touches on and incudes many things that it does not caim to own. It encompasses the presentation of information, without subsuming creative writing and visuaization. It encompasses the evauation of information, without caiming systematic reviewing and meta-anaysis as its own. It incudes organization of information but ays no caim to the construction and operation of terminoogies, taxonomies and thesauri.

42 100 Research 2.0 and the Future of Information Literacy Digita iteracy does not ower the standing of traditiona iteracies. It is much more inseparabe from and fundamenta to reading, writing, and arithmetic (Murray & Pérez, 2014). Accordingy, it has to be buit both on traditiona iteracy skis and an orientation to the understanding of twenty-first century socio-technica systems (Meyers, Erickson, & Sma, 2013). In digita iteracy, traditiona toos (often known from IL) continue to pay an important roe, whie it refects that ordinary peope have become not ony receivers but aso senders of messages (Bawden, 2001). In their draft report, the Digita Literacy Task Force of the American Library Association defined digita iteracy as, the abiity to use information and communication technoogies to find, evauate, create, and communicate information, requiring both cognitive and technica skis (ALA, 2012, p. 1). They add that digitay iterate persons possess technica and cognitive skis that are needed to find, understand, evauate, create, and communicate digita information in a wide variety of formats. These peope are abe to use diverse technoogies appropriatey and effectivey to retrieve information, interpret resuts, and judge the quaity of that information. As regards researchers, they use their skis and the appropriate technoogy to communicate and coaborate with peers, coeagues, and occasionay the genera pubic. Digita iteracy incudes the abiity to read and interpret media and use information in mutipe formats from a wide range of sources when presented via computers. It aso enabes the performance of tasks effectivey in a digita environment (Wison et a., 2011). We shoud aso mention that data iteracy and transiteracy are grouped in a White Paper, Intersections of schoary communication and information iteracy: Creating strategic coaborations for a changing academic environment under the rubric of digita iteracies (ACRL, 2013). The second perspective on digita iteracies, as outined by Meyers, Erickson, and Sma (2013) emphasizes the appication of abstract menta modes to activities invoving digita content. These modes address the processing by individuas of information from a cognitive viewpoint. The third perspective sees digita iteracy as engagement in a set of practices invoving digita toos and media that are embedded in sociay constructed and situated contexts or activities. Instead of providing a ist of discrete skis, this perspective operates within the genera capabiities that

43 The Nature of Information Literacy 101 individuas have for iving, earning, and working in a digita society. These capabiities recognize and refect on the constant changes in technoogy and the behavior and characteristics of digita citizens. The notion that digita iteracy is an evoving construct is both its strength and weakness: whie it privieges a wide range of expertise and a nimbe conception of the vaue of digita iteracy in society, it is notoriousy difficut to assess, and does not mesh we with the existing forma systems of certification or endorsement. This perspective sees participation as the key to deveoping digita iteracies. Digita iteracy, then, coud be seen as the study of written or symboic representation that is mediated by new technoogy. Its prime concern woud be the production and consumption of the verba and symboic aspects of screen-based texts this woud be its initia point of departure from print iteracy. Furthermore, the specific affordances of digita iteracy coud be conceptuaized as a product of the technoogica means of its production and consumption. This is not to deny the compex and often very visua nature of many digita texts (Merchant, 2007). We cassified many of the iteracies discussed above as overarching. Whie in the case of metaiteracy and transiteracy there is ess doubt about this quaity, it is especiay intriguing to examine digita iteracy. Martin (2006) stated that digita iteracy was an integrating but not overarching concept. Owusu-Ansah (2003) identified the attempts to define information iteracy as a-incusive as the main discernabe faut. Nevertheess, there are a number of iteracies that coud compete to be named as overarching. Beyond the iteracies portrayed in this section, information iteracy coud be a successfu candidate. SCONUL, for exampe, defines information iteracy as an umbrea term which encompasses concepts such as digita, visua and media iteracies, academic iteracy, information handing, information skis, data curation, and data management (SCONUL, 2011). Let us not forget that it is of itte importance what we ca the various iteracies of the information age and how we define them (Bawden, 2001). As Hunt (2004) expains, there may be no agreement on the precise definition of information iteracy. Nonetheess, most peope use the term information iteracy rather than ibrary instruction or information fuency. However, if we do not use the same anguage, it wi be difficut to convince our stakehoders about the importance of information iteracy education. In the case of data iteracy, we may experience the same.

44 102 Research 2.0 and the Future of Information Literacy THE RELATIONSHIP OF INFORMATION LITERACY TO INFORMATION OVERLOAD AND PERSONAL INFORMATION MANAGEMENT It is ikey that our previous argument has shown in a convincing manner that it is often difficut to name primary and secondary questions and fieds when speaking about issues reated to iteracies, and especiay information iteracy. Notwithstanding this, many readers may judge the foowing probems to be more oosey reated to our main argument. On the other hand, these borderine fieds can easiy become mainstream issues within a short period of time. In fact, whie they are fundamentay important in their own contexts, they may be perceived to be of secondary importance to a certain (reative) extent in the information iteracy context. Even though we did not do so in the case of information iteracy, it seems expedient to conceive of information overoad (IO) by ooking at what we understand as information. Buckand (1991) differentiates between three principa uses: information-as-process, that is, the act of informing; information-as-knowedge, that is, knowedge communicated concerning some particuar fact, subject, or event; information-as-thing, that is, used attributivey for objects, such as data and documents, which are regarded as being informative. IO is reated both to information-as-thing, that is recorded information, or in other words objective packages of cognitive content in a certain form (Kari, 2007) is important source of IO if it is avaiabe in abundance. IO can aso be defined as an impediment to efficienty using information due to the amount of reevant and potentiay usefu information avaiabe (Bawden & Robinson, 2009). The information cyce of persona documents is managed in an individua s own coection, that is, informa, diverse, and expanding memory coections created or acquired and accumuated by individuas in the course of their persona ives, and beonging to them rather than to their institutions or other paces of work (Wiiams, Leighton John, & Rowand, 2009). We have to add here that IO often remains unrecognized (Badke, 2010) and its very existence is questioned by some authors. For exampe, Tidine (1999) is of the opinion that the concept functions as a modern-day myth. However, if we accept that in fact it does exist, it is necessary to differentiate between the macro- and the micro-eve of IO. The first is reated to the imits of physica storage and processing capacities that present an

45 The Nature of Information Literacy 103 obstace to information access. IO at the micro-eve is essentiay a faiure to fiter information (Davis, 2011). Let us add that our information environment is characterized not ony by greater amounts of information avaiabe in a greater variety of formats and types but aso by deivery through a imited number of interfaces (Bawden & Robinson, 2009). Besides the quantity, a substantia part of the information that we consume and have to manage is becoming more and more voatie (Davis, 2012). These factors contribute to a growing compexity, which materiaizes in diverse and abundant information choices in amost a fieds (Morvie, 2005), and is often couped with peope s genera inefficiency in performing a given task (Davis, 2012). Presupposing inefficiency is buit on the assumption that a person can ony digest a certain amount of information in any given time (Ji, Ha, & Sypher, 2014). Compaints about IO itsef are by no means new. A seection of the exampes, presented by Bawden and Robinson (2009), shows this in the historica deveopment of IO ceary. Compaints about the difficuty of keeping up with the amount of information avaiabe began eary. Nonetheess, information, contained in the printed book, the schoary journa, and the computer have often been named as the sources of IO. IO was generay accepted as a probem in the ate 1950s and eary 1960s. The exponentia growth in the number of pubications, particuary in science, technoogy, and medicine, was considered to be the cause. By the 1990s, references to IO began to appear in the business word as we. IO has been heaviy infuenced by recent technoogica and cutura changes (Rappe, 2011). First of a, socia media (often caed new media) have had a significant effect on it. The fact that most Web 2.0 users express themseves in mediated spaces instead of communicating face to face (Jarrett, 2008) causes IO. The uncontroed nature of this communication, the ease of producing information, and the expectation of constant novety require the rapid updating and posting of new materia. This is aggravated by the ack of incentives to remove our production from the net (Brown, 2010). As said above, the concept of IO invoves the notion of excess. However, excess in itsef is not a sufficient condition for being overoaded. Overoad can be defined in comparison to some norms, which reguate what is an appropriate amount of information and which pieces of information are undesirabe (Himma, 2007).

46 104 Research 2.0 and the Future of Information Literacy As IO is mainy a socia condition propagated by peope, it can be combated by offering appropriate education that focuses on critica thinking. The absence of such education and the ack of adequate information fiters or the faiure to appy them appropriatey resuts in IO (Davis, 2011). IO can righty be caed poution. More importanty, however, it is usefu to know that we can earn to work around it, instead of treating it as something that must be controed and reguated (Springer, 2009). In other words, the weath of information becomes noise if one cannot make sense of it (Morvie, 2005). Indeed, we receive more and more messages that are detached from a contexts, that is, are competey meaningess to us. In essence, IL is about reconstructing this ost sense and context (Tuominen, 2007). This is why we can affirm that being information iterate enabes us to recapture the contro ost in the overoad situation (Bawden, Hotham, & Courtney, 1999, p. 253). IO is the most widey recognized pathoogy of information, that is, an exampe of seemingy strange behaviors that we can observe, when individuas face difficuties in managing information, particuary when arge amounts of diverse information are avaiabe. Information anxiety is one of these pathoogies, and is usuay a condition of stress caused by the inabiity to access, understand, or make use of necessary information. There are infobesity and information withdrawa as we (Bawden & Robinson, 2009). When describing another pathoogy, information manutrition, Herman and Nichoas (2010, p. 246) state: Ironicay enough, the root of the information manutrition probem seems to be the very act of switching the information tap on to everyone, which a too often amounts to the remova of the information professiona from the information equation. We find a characterization of the probem a few pages ater: It is hardy surprising to find, then, that whie peope do indeed effortessy acquire vast amounts of information, a too often none, or at most very itte of it, apty meets their needs. In fact, much of it amounts to the information equivaent of fast food: easiy obtainabe, fattering to the undiscerning paate, but of itte actua vaue at its best, and harmfu at its worst. Regrettaby, though perhaps not unexpectedy, considering what we know of fast food consumption, peope are satisfied enough with their information suppy, never reaising, or at east comfortaby ignoring that they shoud indeed coud do much better where their information needs are concerned. (pp )

47 The Nature of Information Literacy 105 The approach of choosing the most easiy accessibe information and eaving the rest is not an appropriate behavior, either (Badke, 2010). Such behavior is known as satisficing, which means taking just enough information to meet a need, thereby impying that just enough information is good enough. The genera background to satisficing is given by convenience, characterizing both academic and everyday information seeking. It is mainy associated with the speed of search engines and the ease of access (Connaway, Dickey, & Radford, 2011). Neyon (2011, p. 25) ceary expresses how we shoud approach IO. The probem is not that we have too much information. We are an information-driven society; how coud there be too much? The chaenge is to make effective use of it. We do not need to bock. We don t need to imit. We need to enabe. We need the toos for discovery. This is not a probem. It is an opportunity, and we wi make much faster progress in soving the probems we face when we see. It is information iteracy education that is seen by many to be too to reduce IO among users (Bummer & Kenton, 2014). Information iteracy essentiay seems to enabe us to efficienty process a types of information content (Badke, 2010), thus counterbaancing IO. Apparenty, it is at the micro-eve where information iteracy can be used as an efficient means of managing IO. Cosey aied to IO is persona information management (PIM) which is embedded in the PIC mentioned above (See page 80). The PIC mode is made up of a pyramid comprising severa ayers. In this pyramid, information iteracy occupies the midde ayer, ocated above the eementary eve which reates excusivey to skis, competencies, and abiities. Data iteracy, which was mentioned earier, can be paced on the same eve as information iteracy, that is, it can occupy the midde ayer, ocated above the eementary eve which reates excusivey to individua competencies (Gendina, 2008; Karvaics, 2013). The re-evauation of the PIC is a resut of simutaneous deveopments in a number of fieds. These fieds are technoogica, such as the spraw of mobie toos and the design of the network architecture as a persona area network. They appear in the economy as persona reationships with the consumers, the personification of the products, and foowing the onine behavior of the users for data mining. An exampe of the deveopments in cuture is that we are becoming cuture producers or prosumers. In the fied of poitics, we witness the process of empowerment and the evoving de-institutionaization. Privacy and transparency aws make the pubic sphere visibe and party controabe.

48 106 Research 2.0 and the Future of Information Literacy Characterizing the noveties of the conceptua innovations, et us review the ist of the most featured fieds in the PIC: Persona information space denotes a progressivey broadening coud of discretey composed contents, personaized information services, and information processing toos, incuding toos that are wearabe. Persona earning environments are more open, student-centered, persona task-focused frameworks than the earier earning management systems (LMS). Cients can manage the content they produce, write bogs and buid persona portfoios. If the goa is integrating or sharing persona fies and documents, there are many specia toos for structured content management, such as persona wikis. 3 If we are taking about the mid- and ong-term preservation and retrieva of these contents, the number of possibiities are countess to get down and appy the new toos of persona digita archiving (Marsha, 2008). Second-generation persona assistant patforms, persona digita secretaries, are an attempt to simpify the muti-channe interface environments with a striking means of differentiation. A the above-mentioned soutions can serve persona productivity improvement using software toos, compex appications, and invoved experts. The progenitors, caed persona network management (PNM) toos, coud successfuy invigorate after the exposion of socia media networks and patforms. It was aso inevitabe that management science woud identify separate fieds for PIM and persona knowedge management (Frand & Hixon, 1999). A more comprehensive approach, persona knowedge governance, has aready appeared, providing a strategic foreground to the digita support of persona deveopment. In the discourse started with PIM, the practice of and the training in professiona skis are needed to process the information, save time, and work more effectivey (Etze & Thomas, 1999) in the organizationa (business) environment in other words: how do we manage the constanty and rapidy changing persona information technoogies (hardware and software components, methods, services, etc.) at work. Later (Jones, 2007) and more recenty (Jones & Marchionini, 2011) Wiiam Jones has started to broaden the definition by affirming that PIM is the practice and study of the activities peope perform to acquire, organize, maintain, and retrieve information 3

49 The Nature of Information Literacy 107 for everyday use. He eevates this onto a more genera eve by decaring that PIM is about taking charge of the information in our ives. The organization of information can be interpreted differenty, if we examine the recommendations of the American Library Association for information iteracy (ALA, 1989). As is we known, IL begins with recognizing the need for information, and then identifying, finding, and evauating it. The fourth step of the process is organizing information. We may think that this step is identica with the roe that the ibrary can pay in organizing information (often caed cassification and indexing). This roe, i.e., knowedge organization, is defined by Dahberg (2006) as the science of structuring and systematicay arranging knowedge units (concepts) according to their inherent knowedge eements (characteristics) and the appication of concepts and casses of concepts ordered by this way for the assignment of the worthwhie contents of referents (objects and subjects) of a kinds. However, organizing information is much more simiar to the compex actions and processes that take pace in a ibrary. This means that it is not imited to organizing, but encompasses coecting and preserving information, as we as giving access to it, throughout this process. Thus, the principa difference between the ibrary s activities and PIM is that persona coections are in the possession of the users, who give access to themseves, being persona in the strict sense of the word. In a PIM framework, the information ife cyce of persona documents is managed in an individua s own coection, which is informa, diverse, and expanding, and is created or acquired and accumuated by individuas in the course of their persona ives, and beongs to them, rather than to their institutions or other paces of work (Wiiams, Leighton John, & Rowand, 2009). Tayor (1968) reminds us that information seeking may aso invove the consutation of persona fies, which can be understood to refer to a domestic coection of books and other print documents (Shenton, 2009). A subjective but perfecty appropriate remark about his own (persona) ibrary by Mangue (2008) can be generaized as foows. Most peope have no cataog in their ibraries. They usuay know the position of the books by recaing the ibrary s ayout as they have paced the books on the sheves themseves. In the digita environment, the situation is different as persona ibraries aso may be overwhemed by information, especiay in the form of computer fies. This may cause probems, though not in regard to storage space, as in the case of print books as mentioned by Mangue (2008). The apparenty preferred format for maintaining persona coections is the PDF as new items can be efficienty added to such coections (Newman & Sack, 2013).

50 108 Research 2.0 and the Future of Information Literacy PIM refers to the practice and study of the activities performed in order to acquire, organize, maintain, and retrieve information for everyday use, in the right form and quaity (Jones & Maier, 2003). PIM aows users to organize information, to store it for future use with the hep of their own systems. PIM toos offer soutions that can hep to decrease the fragmentation in our information environment caused by the diversity of formats, appications, and toos (Franganio, 2009). As mentioned earier, diversity is one of the sources of IO, thus the surge of interest in PIM shows that it is one of the necessary reactions to it. Put differenty, PIM is about the handing of information, stored on or avaiabe through anaogue and digita toos, that is the organization of our persona information environment (Nagy, 2010). According to Bruce, Jones, and Dumais (2004), PIM emerges from the buiding, managing, and using of a persona information coection, which is a personaized subset of the information word used when we are faced with information needs. It can be defined as the space where we turn to first when we need information to do a task or pursue an interest. It is an organic and dynamic persona construct that consists of information sources and channes, cutivated and organized over time and in response to different stimui. The origins of PIM go back to eary times. We can see this in an anaogue form that is sti in use: taking notes on paper in an ordered form, usuay on index cards. Both the definitions and this short historica overview show that PIM is a positivey genuine persona occupation which is performed individuay, mainy by professionas. Even if it has origins in the past, the interest in PIM has grown as a consequence of IO. This idea is supported by some definitions and approaches to PIM. For exampe, Franganio (2009) states that from the set of information that is accessibe, individuas create a subset of persona information which can be used when necessary. To achieve this, they appy their own, persona scheme. The fact that PIM can hep in retrieving information that has been forgotten underines its individua nature. We can aso speak about persona information space, which is an abstract domain that encompasses a pieces of information that are under the contro of an individua (Franganio, 2009). Among the variabes of PIM identified by Bergman (2013), of prime interest is the organization of information. PIM is one of the answers to the probem of the avaiabiity of arge quantities of documents in digita form and the technica abiity to hande them with reative ease. It is of secondary concern that their preservation depends on the actua needs of the user thus

51 The Nature of Information Literacy 109 it is far from obigatory for them. Overa, this is why, when we speak about PIM, the word persona receives a strong emphasis. According to Bruce, Jones, and Dumais (2004), PIM materiaizes in buiding, managing, and using a persona information coection, which is a personaized subset of the information word that we use when we are faced with information needs. It can be defined as the space which we turn to first when we need information to do a task or pursue an interest. It is an organic and dynamic persona construct that consists of information sources and channes, cutivated and organized over time and in response to different stimui. Mioduser, Nachmias, and Forkosh-Baruch (2009) ca for seven technoogy-reated iteracies for the knowedge society. One is PIM iteracy, which is appied by individuas when storing their information items in order to retrieve them ater. Whether PIM iteracy is a separate iteracy is difficut to decide. In any event, it requires skis and abiities which are derived from information iteracy. In addition to this, there is persona knowedge management, quaified by Paueen and Gorman (2011) as a way of coping with compex environmenta changes and deveopments as we as a form of sophisticated career and ife management. It is an emerging concept that focuses not ony on the importance of individua growth and earning, but on the technoogy and management processes which have been traditionay associated with organizationa KM. PKM is not directy connected to IO, at east not to such an extent as PIM. The individua aso pays a different roe in it, firsty because of PKM s cose connection to the corporate word as an extension of KM. If we accept the definition of Brophy, that KM is the process of creating and managing the conditions for the transfer and the use of knowedge (Brophy, 2001, p. 36), this becomes cear. Besides KM, cognitive psychoogy, phiosophy, and management science pay a roe. Its focus is on heping individuas to be more effective in persona, organizationa, and socia environments (Paueen, 2009). Whie the traditiona view of KM is primariy concerned with managing organizationa knowedge (incuding the knowedge that individuas possess), PKM is persona inquiry the quest to find, connect, earn, and expore (Cemente & Poara, 2005). In the ight of the ACRL Information Literacy Standards, PIM strategies gain especia weight, because they can hep researchers to become aware of their information decisions and needs more expicity. Whie citation

52 110 Research 2.0 and the Future of Information Literacy management software products (often provided by ibraries) are usefu for managing persona coections, ibraries pay a critica roe in supporting the deveopment of reated strategies as ibrarians have the expertise and can provide advice on how information can be organized so as to better organize researchers persona coections (Exner, 2014). Noin (2013) identified areas of potentia research support which have not been covered by traditiona academic ibrarians or reated professionas. One of these is the probem of overoad with regard to both tasks and toos. However, if there is a ack of professiona support, researchers may not utiize personaized digita research toos propery, thus they are unabe to ease the burden of IO. To optimize researchers performance, personaized meta-services are required that match individua research practices with appropriate digita toos, based on a reguar a diaog between researchers and ibrarians and thus fine-tuned to researchers persona preferences. Such services have to be based on using information iteracy toos and services. Usuay, researchers, especiay in the humanities, aggregate vast quantities of information into their persona research coections. Their information needs dictate that this information must be managed in order to make proper use of it. Gathering this information is accompanied by decisions to keep or discard a given an item. The decision to keep information has at east two steps. The first is to decide whether the information is usefu. If the given piece is judged to be usefu, decisions have to be made in what format (print, eectronic, or both) to keep it, where to keep it, and how to structure or cassify it, taking into consideration its reationship to other items. Positive decisions about keeping information are foowed by creating some sort of persona information space, where recognition and retrieva have to be taken care of. The atter is especiay important because most researchers own more objects than they can remember. Persona research information coections differ from other persona information coections by the fact that they come into existence by a conscious effort to contro the quantity of incoming information and the way in which it is organized (Bussert, Chiang, & Tancheva, 2011).

53 Chapter 1 The Nature of Information Literacy If you iked this excerpt, the fu tite is avaiabe for purchase via the Esevier Store: Or you can view onine now if your institution has purchased this tite via ScienceDirect:

54 CHAPTER 3 Critica Thinking and Information Literacy 3.1 CRITICAL THINKING As a preude to the substantive content of this chapter, consider the foowing concrete exampe of a set of information iteracy activities. Imagine a student who is faced with the task of writing an essay. If we begin to unpack the information iteracy activities that this task requires, we immediatey see the reevance of critica thinking (which we define and discuss further beow). The first task of a for the student is to interpret what the question is asking him or her to do; is it seeking, for exampe, a description of a phenomenon or theory, is it asking for a much more indepth evauation of a theory, or is it asking for competing theories to be compared and contrasted? The answer to that very first question may not be immediatey obvious and may require thought and critica refection. Having interpreted the question, the next step is to identify reevant iterature (and note that what is reevant is constrained by the assumed interpretation of the question). There are (at east) three possibe answers to the question of where reevant iterature containing appicabe information comes from: the reading ist provided by the ecturer, a broader swathe of reading beyond the reading ist, as found by the student, and materia identified within texts found by the student. Aready, therefore, we have highighted some important and maeabe characteristics of (critica) thinking about an essay such as: reading the question/carifying the topic; the disposition to go beyond prescribed reading ists; the abiity to search for reevant iterature independenty; preconceptions about the topic and essay writing, which infuence reading/seection of iterature; the capacity to make sound judgements; the capacity to pan and impement a writing strategy designed to present a suitabe (eg, critica) response to the question; the disposition and abiity to respond to feedback and critica commentary on one s work. From Information Literacy to Socia Epistemoogy ISBN Copyright 2016 A. Anderson and B. Johnston. Pubished by Esevier Ltd. A rights reserved. 37

55 38 From Information Literacy to Socia Epistemoogy Critica thinking is therefore a broad concept incorporating interpretation of the subject content, interaction of the student with the earning context, the student s reading strategies and information awareness. Taken together, these are perhaps the most immediatey obvious key components of critica thinking in reation to information iteracy, but as we wi see beow there are other reevant eements of critica thinking that must be considered. Before aunching into the detaied consideration of critica thinking, we shoud note that there are pedagogica impications of critica thinking and information iteracy in terms of course design, teaching, feedback and assessment. For exampe, it is cear that the teacher s choice of essay topic/ question, seection of recommended reading and the nature of discourse in giving feedback and providing assessment are key factors in constructing the wider earning situation represented by the essay task. The ecturer s degree of awareness of information iteracy, his/her own capacity for critica thinking, particuary in reation to refecting on his/her own teaching practice, and his/her capacity to motivate and guide students to good information practice, are therefore centra to good pedagogic practice aimed at encouraging critica thinking. We wi be exporing the pedagogica impications of what is known about critica thinking both in this chapter and subsequenty in Chapter 6. First, we wi expore a number of questions that wi hep us to carify the reevance of critica thinking for information iteracy. For exampe: what exacty is meant by the term critica thinking? As we wi see, the atter is an umbrea term that is used not ony by psychoogists but aso phiosophers and educationaists, and covers a wide range of distinguishaby different aspects of thinking. Some eements of critica thinking are particuary pertinent to information iteracy and we wi focus in particuar on these. Having identified some reevant aspects of critica thinking, we wi examine (1) the issue of where within information iteracy activities these three psychoogica phenomena manifest themseves, and (2) the issue of how this research iterature shoud best be used to devise better information iteracy instruction. In Chapter 4 we wi consider how critica thinking reates to epistemoogy and to metacognition. Note that the iterature on critica thinking extensivey refers to critica thinking skis, and we have aready (see the Preface) noted the theoretica tensions between the conceptuaisation of psychoogica activities as skis as opposed to situated activities. We reiterate the view that the situated activity perspective is more nuanced and preferabe to the simpe notion of a ski, since skis tend to be

56 Critica Thinking and Information Literacy 39 conceptuaised as coections of independent capabiities that can be discussed in isoation from each other and from the contexts in which they manifest themseves. We beieve that both their independence from each other and from the infuence of the context cannot simpy be assumed. Where the notion of a ski is hepfu, on the other hand, is in impicating the importance of practice at the activity for improving it. Since the iterature extensivey uses the word ski in connection with critica thinking, we wi in reviewing the reevant iterature use that term, but the reader shoud bear in mind that our perspective is rather more eaborated than that, and that ski is being used simpy as a convenient shorthand. The phrase critica thinking encompasses a wide variety of patterns of thinking (eg, Brookfied, 1987; Ennis, 1987; Kuhn, 1991). Ennis (1987), for exampe, isted some 120 identifiaby separate thinking skis that coud a reasonaby be caed critica thinking, incuding, for exampe, identifying assumptions, identifying and deaing with equivocation, making vaue judgements, anaysing arguments, asking and answering questions of carification and/or chaenge, judging the credibiity of a source and so on. Scriven and Pau (2008) provide a usefu overa definition of critica thinking: Critica thinking is the inteectuay discipined process of activey and skifuy conceptuaising, appying, anaysing, synthesising and/or evauating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, refection, reasoning or communication, as a guide to beief and action. As Munix (2012) notes, whist there is a earned, ski-ike aspect to critica thinking, it is more than the mere possession and exercise of skis: it is not just the bind foowing of a set of rues for good thinking, but a habit of thinking in which the thinker is disposed to use these skis and to accept the resuts of using them. This impies a degree of metacognitive awareness on the part of the thinker, a point to which we wi return beow. A person who is capabe of, and in the habit of such thinking is abe to evauate the quaity of information he or she encounters to hep with decisions about which eements of the information shoud be accepted and beieved, as opposed to mistrusted and ignored. The reevance of such a conceptuaisation of critica thinking to information iteracy cannot be overstated: at every stage of the process, from initia formuation of an information need through to the fina seection of information for attention and use, critica thinking is undoubtedy impicated. Critica consideration of the aim and scope of the information-seeking process woud surey hep focus the search process on reevant and promising areas; critica consideration of (for exampe) the seection of keywords and the choice of databases

57 40 From Information Literacy to Socia Epistemoogy in an onine search woud again imit appropriatey the scope of the resuts obtained; and critica consideration of the materias obtained in the search according to reevant criteria (eg, peer-reviewed journas in an academic iterature search or seection of favourite magazine or newspaper sources for a hobby-reated search) woud surey hep the individua obtain what are for him or her the most satisfactory resuts. Taking a broad perspective, it is possibe to conceptuaise much of the information that we encounter on a day-to-day basis as attempts at persuasive communication. Advertisements and poitica manifestos are very obviousy attempts at persuasion, but arguaby academic papers, teevision documentaries and many if not most of the pages on the word-wide web are aso attempts at persuasive communication designed to get their reader or viewer to accept or agree with a point of view or theory, or to beieve that some product or idea is worthy of their investment. Given the prevaence of such information sources/persuasive communications, the abiity to criticay anayse what one is presented with is one that has very genera reevance. An abiity to engage in critica thinking is therefore ikey to not ony raise students academic attainment, but aso to enhance their abiity to be effective empoyees and responsibe citizens (eg, Perkins, 1989). Conversey, a poor grasp of these skis woud ceary impy a poor quaity of everyday thinking and probem-soving, and a degree of creduousness, among other difficuties. Given the wide variety of components of critica thinking noted above, it is usefu to try to simpify this pethora of thinking skis. One way of doing this is to conceptuaise the core of critica thinking as a type of reasoned argument, and a number of authors have done exacty that (Biig, 1987; Kuhn, 1991; Munix, 2012; Perkins, Aen, & Hafner, 1983). Deaing with arguments and the ogica reations between them ( the abiity to grasp inferentia connections between statements, as Munix, 2012, puts it) is at the heart of individuas formuations of their beiefs, judgements and concusions (Kuhn, 1991), attitudes and categorisations (Biig, 1987) and scientific thinking (Newton, Driver, & Osborne, 1999). For exampe, Newton et a. argue that argumentative reasoning is centra to the practice of science: the scientist must be abe to articuate reasons and evidence that justifies particuar views, to chaenge particuar views, to envisage views aternative to their own and to co-construct understanding in coaboration with coeagues. Therefore, it is possibe to caim that argumentative reasoning is at the very heart of critica thinking, and that a focus on peope s skis at argumentative reasoning and on means of improving these skis woud be an exceent way of investigating and improving critica thinking.

58 Critica Thinking and Information Literacy 41 Adopting this perspective on critica thinking and foowing Kuhn (1991), we take argumentative reasoning to incude a number of abiities: 1. being abe to differentiate opinions from evidence, so that the reasoner does not, for exampe, simpy restate the reevant opinion when asked for evidence in support of it; 2. being abe to support opinions with non-spurious evidence, that is, to have a good sense of the quaity of different types of evidence and to seect particuary compeing forms of evidence in support of one s ideas, rather than unconvincing forms; 3. being abe to envision opinions aternative to one s own and to know what evidence woud support these, 4. being abe to provide evidence that simutaneousy supports one s own opinions whie rebutting aternatives and 5. being abe to take an epistemoogica stance which invoves weighing the pros and cons (by reference to reevant epistemoogica criteria) of what is currenty known. From the perspective of those who empoy university graduates, it is undoubtedy the case that the above set of behaviours is highy vaued and a desired outcome of education (eg, see Harvey, Moon, Gea, & Bower, 1997). A great dea of research has been conducted into the nature of argumentative reasoning, and on how such skis might be improved (eg, Anderson, Howe, Soden, Haiday, & Low, 2001; Kuhn, 1991; Kuhn, Shaw, & Feton, 1997; Perkins, 1989). Much of the research on this topic that has accumuated in recent years appears to impy that the quaity of argumentative reasoning in the adut popuation is typicay surprisingy poor (eg, Kuhn, 1991; Perkins et a., 1983). Consequenty, an eminenty practica concern is how to encourage earners to engage in these behaviours in a more systematic, searching and thorough fashion. We wi first of a review some representative studies among the research on argumentative reasoning, present some critique of those studies and then go on to review intervention studies that have attempted to improve the quaity of argumentative reasoning. 3.2 THE QUALITY OF ARGUMENTATIVE REASONING Two eary strands of research that appeared to suggest that argumentative reasoning skis in the adut popuation are somewhat weak are those conducted by Kuhn (1991) and Perkins et a. (1983). Both studies invoved asking participants to reason about everyday matters on which they coud

59 42 From Information Literacy to Socia Epistemoogy reasonaby be expected to have had a prior opinion, and to anayse their responses from an argumentative reasoning perspective. Kuhn (1991) interviewed aduts from a variety of educationa backgrounds (for exampe, some with university education and others with community coege education) and asked them to expain the causes of each of three socia phenomena (schoo faiure, unempoyment and recidivists return to crime; it was anticipated that the schoo faiure issue woud be most famiiar to participants, unempoyment of intermediate famiiarity and recidivism the east famiiar). Participants were interviewed individuay and asked to say what they thought caused the phenomenon in question, to justify their causa beief ( why do you think X ), to articuate any aternative causa mechanisms that they coud envisage ( what do you think someone who disagreed with you might say was the cause of X ), to provide any justifications they coud envisage for those aternative theories, and to indicate how they woud rebut evidence in favour of theories they did not personay subscribe to. Kuhn found that the participants were wiing to assert causa expanations, but often confused their theory (Kuhn s term for the participants causa expanations) with its supporting evidence, for exampe, by simpy restating the theory when asked to provide evidence in support of it. They aso frequenty generated what Kuhn caed pseudoevidence, which took the form of richy eaborated pausibe scenarios that restated the theory rather than provided genuine evidence for it. Participants aso frequenty showed a poor abiity to envisage aternative theories or evidence in their favour. Expertise in a reevant area made no difference to the quaity of argument. For exampe, paroe officers did not reason any better about the topic of recidivism than did other participants. However, Kuhn did find that a coege-eve education was associated with better performance in that degree-educated participants were better at generating evidence, envisioning aternative ines of causation, and having a more sophisticated evauative epistemoogy than participants who had had no further education. However, the performance of even degree-educated students showed room for improvement. Kuhn tested a sma number of participants who had expertise in phiosophy, and this particuar subgroup of participants exhibited the best overa performance. Perkins et a. (1983) conducted a study which in many ways was simiar to that of Kuhn (1991). Perkins et a. presented a written task in which participants considered issues such as whether passing a aw to require drinks manufacturers to provide a 5-cent return on empty bottes and cans woud reduce itter, or whether the reintroduction of miitary conscription woud

60 Critica Thinking and Information Literacy 43 increase America s infuence in the word. Participants were asked to refect on the reevant issue for a few minutes, then, having decided what their position was regarding the issue, to set out a case for this position in writing. Their written responses were subsequenty anaysed for the quaity of argumentative reasoning dispayed. The resuts showed that participants often exhibited what Perkins et a. caed myside bias, which was defined in terms of the numbers of arguments advanced in support of their preferred case as compared to the numbers of arguments advanced for its opposite. In other words, they were prone to engaging in one-sided argumentation, which presented arguments in favour of their own case and negected possibe counterarguments. Perkins et a. aso reported that the arguments provided by participants were fawed in various ways, for exampe, by faiing to anticipate and effectivey rebut obvious counterarguments. For exampe, if arguing in favour of miitary conscription by caiming that a arger set of armed forces woud intimidate potentia adversaries, they might negect to anticipate or rebut the counterargument that, given that modern weapons of mass destruction can wipe out arge numbers of troops, the sheer number of troops within an army is a ess reevant consideration in weighing up possibe infuence than it woud have done at previous points in history. Perkins et a. suggest that their participants buid a menta mode of the situation when considering the topic, and they examine this mode for robustness. Perkins et a. contrasted two different patterns of critica thinking that they caimed were evident within their data when participants undertook this process of menta mode examination. The weaker form of critica thinking was associated with what they described as a makes-sense epistemoogy. This is the tendency to minimise cognitive compexity by using the simpe criterion of whether a given proposition makes intuitive sense and rings true, without criticay anaysing their menta mode very deepy at a. The stronger form of critica thinking on the other hand was associated with a critica epistemoogy in which participants understood what the potentia pitfas of justification are, and were accordingy more ikey to criticay anayse their own views by asking themseves when and why their menta mode of the topic might fai, and buiding a mode that was more robust against potentia objections and criticisms as a resut. Interestingy, Perkins et a. caim that whist the makes-sense epistemoogy is quite prevaent across their participants, a critica epistemoogy ought in principe to be teachabe. Both Kuhn and Perkins expain their participants apparenty unimpressive argumentative reasoning performances with reference to difficuties in

61 44 From Information Literacy to Socia Epistemoogy metacognition. Kuhn s way of expressing this is to assert that participants think with their theories (ie, opinions) and evidence, rather than about them. As a resut they have difficuty in coordinating opinions and evidence appropriatey. Kuhn s and Perkins et a. s work might appear to provide a somewhat beak picture of the ordinary person s argumentative reasoning skis. The educationa impications of such a beak picture woud be profound, because, as we argued above, the patterns of thinking under investigation here are absoutey centra to effective cognitive functioning. However, there are a number of methodoogica and theoretica issues in reation to this research that need to be considered before the findings can be accepted as being generay true. On the methodoogica side, it is possibe that particuar features of the tasks set and of the testing situation might infuence the participants performance. For exampe, the topics about which participants had to reason were chosen by the experimenter and may have been ones about which the participants knew very itte, or had not given much prior thought to. In that connection, a subsequent study by Perkins (1989) is reevant. Perkins (1989) compared participants reasoning about a vexed persona decision that they had recenty been pondering (eg, which university to attend, whether to get engaged), and which they might reasonaby be expected to have given some prior thought to and in addition to have cared about, given the diemma s persona reevance. On the vexed persona issue, their performance was rather ess biased and one-sided than was the case with a standard experimenter-suppied reasoning task. Another possibe reason for beieving that the seemingy poor performance of ordinary aduts in argumentative reasoning tasks might not be quite as bad as Kuhn and Perkins impy is the issue of participants motivation. In short, are participants unabe to reason cogenty, or is it the case that they are in fact capabe but do not habituay do so? One of Perkins s (1989) studies arguaby shed ight on this issue. The study invoved scaffoding the participants by having a reasoning expert working aongside them on a one-to-one basis. The reasoning expert did not suppy content in the form of additiona arguments, but instead prompted participants to think more deepy about arguments that they themseves had come up with. For exampe, the experts requested the participants to rank order the reasons they had thought of in terms of their quaity, asked them to think of obvious counterarguments to specific propositions, and in genera to reason more thoroughy and deepy. This scaffoding was appied particuary in reation to arguments on the nonpreferred side of the argument (the otherside ). The resut was a striking

62 Critica Thinking and Information Literacy 45 (700%) improvement in numbers of otherside arguments provided. There are two possibe expanations for this resut. The first is that whist participants often do not spontaneousy engage in good-quaity argumentative reasoning, it is within their reach (within the Vygotskyan Zone of Proxima Deveopment or ZPD; Vygotsky, 1978). This impies that a training intervention coud hep effect improvement. The second, more motivationay focused interpretation, is that participants are abe to reason cogenty if supported (or pushed), but normay decine to do so. There is evidence for both of the above interpretations: Anderson et a. (2001), Kuhn et a. (1997), and Perkins (1989), have found that training interventions do indeed effect improvement. See Anderson and Soden (2002) for a review of some teaching interventions based on peer interaction that have demonstrated improvements in aspects of critica thinking. More recenty, Abrami et a. (2012) and Behar-Horenstein and Liu (2011) have reviewed iterature examining the effectiveness of teaching interventions in improving critica thinking more generay; this research is considered in a itte more detai beow. The second, motivationa interpretation of the Kuhn Perkins data auded to above aso fits with much other research (eg, Baron, 1994; Reason, 1990) suggesting that peope are reuctanty rationa, ie, that sound reasoning is effortfu and participants are often insufficienty thorough in a variety of thinking tasks. There are, therefore, good reasons for being cautious about any concusion to the effect that an apparenty poor eve of performance refects some sort of stabe, enduring cognitive weakness. A more theoretica set of issues connected with the Kuhn Perkins work concerns the very nature of the skis invoved. Both authors discuss critica thinking/argumentative reasoning as a ski that can, ike a skis, be improved with practice. However, doubts have been expressed as to whether the very term ski is an appropriate one to use in connection with argumentative reasoning. For exampe, Schwartz, Neuman, Gi, and Iya (2002) distinguish two perspectives on argumentative reasoning. The first is the traditiona generic ski perspective (exempified by the work of Ennis (1987)). This conceptuaises critica thinking/argumentative reasoning as a set of genera strategies of argumentation that are deveoped through the ife span, that can be depoyed fexiby in a variety of contexts, and that can be improved with practice in much the same way that one s paying a sport or a musica instrument can improve simpy by doing the reevant activity more often. The second is an activity perspective, which regards thinking and argument as socia practices that are exercised and shared within a community, and that are evoked by particuar tasks and contexts, rather than

63 46 From Information Literacy to Socia Epistemoogy skis possessed by individuas and that reside soey at the individua eve (Coe, 1996; Resnick & Neson-LeGa, 1997; Rogoff, 1998). Argumentative reasoning performance is thus conceptuaised as an individua propensity that can be used in a variety of situations (ie, is domain-genera, to use the jargon) within a ski-based account, and as a contextuaised activity (where the toos avaiabe to participants, the socia interactions that occur, the previous history of those invoved in the interaction and their goas a exert infuences on the quaity of the participants argumentative reasoning performance) in the more domain-specific activity perspective. The domain-generaity versus specificity issue is of considerabe practica importance. If argumentative reasoning were in fact domain-specific, as McPeck (1981) suggests is true for critica thinking in genera, then argumentative reasoning wi be cosey tied to the epistemoogy of particuar domains, a point argued aso by Wiingham (2007). There woud, therefore, be no reason to beieve that a person who thinks criticay in one area wi be abe to in another (McPeck, 1981, p. 7). This woud ead to pessimism about whether it woud be possibe to teach argumentative reasoning capabiities that woud generaise beyond the academic discipine with which they were associated. A strong domain-specific view of argumentative reasoning woud aso impy that attempting to test this type of thinking by asking participants to reason about genera socia topics that they may know itte about in the way that both Kuhn and Perkins did woud produce meaningess resuts. Kuhn (1991) tackes the domain-specificity issue directy by arguing that argumentative reasoning occupies an intermediate ocation on the domainspecificity versus domain-generaity dimension. In a ater paper, Kuhn (1993) caims that her research identified forms of thinking that were domaingenera in that they transcended the particuar content in which they were expressed. Means and Voss (1996), provide evidence suggesting that there exists a domain-genera component to argumentative reasoning. Recent reviews of the iterature (eg, Lai, 2011; Munix, 2012) confirm that the above summary of the iterature is an accurate one. Munix (2012) argues that the case for an argumentative reasoning perspective on critica thinking is indeed a strong one, and that critica thinking encompasses both domain-specific (eg, the standards of evidence quaity within a particuar domain) and domain-genera (eg, the abiity to grasp evidentia reations) eements. Lai (2011) reviews iterature across psychoogica, phiosophica and educationa strands of work noting the various possibe positions as regards domain-specificity summarised above, and summarising some of the iterature on improving critica thinking; this is discussed further beow.

64 Critica Thinking and Information Literacy 47 Why shoud argumentative reasoning in particuar be reevant to information iteracy, as opposed to other more genera eements of critica thinking? Certainy it is obvious that such critica thinking activities as judging the credibiity of a source of information are (or perhaps we shoud say, shoud be) of vita importance in information iteracy activities. It is aso reasonaby obvious why argumentative reasoning shoud be reevant to information iteracy activities in an academic context: arguaby, argumentative reasoning is quite simpy at the heart of a academic work, regardess of discipine. Academic work consists argey of formuating we-constructed arguments supported by discipine-appropriate evidence (and of course, generating that evidence in the first pace in the form of research activities). The case for adopting an argumentative reasoning perspective on information iteracy activities within an academic context is, therefore, easy to make. But, for exampe, for more casua information iteracy activities such as ones reated to hobbies, for exampe, why shoud argumentative reasoning matter? The answer to this, we suggest, ies in part with our caim above that much of the information that we encounter on a day-to-day basis can be conceived of as a form of persuasive communication concerning what to beieve, or buy, or do in the service of better heath, beauty or webeing, or who to vote for, and so on. The critica deconstruction of such communications is important in making decisions about which ones we aow ourseves to be infuenced by. Those emanating from sources for whom the argument is ceary sef-serving, or within which there are ogica non-sequiturs or contentious caims, we woud do we to be cautious about and it is every bit as important, we woud argue, to be abe to do this in reation to everyday information as it is in reation to more technica information within academic contexts (See Chapter 9). Having (we hope) convinced the reader of the reevance of critica thinking and in particuar argumentative reasoning to information iteracy, the question then arises as to how we can improve the quaity of critica thinking, an issue to which we now turn. 3.3 PEDAGOGY AND CRITICAL THINKING: ATTEMPTS TO IMPROVE THE QUALITY OF CRITICAL THINKING VIA TEACHING INTERVENTIONS There have been a arge number of studies that have expored ways of improving aspects of critica thinking, and we wi accordingy review a sampe of studies that coud be argued to have positive impications for how critica thinking can be improved via instruction within an information

65 48 From Information Literacy to Socia Epistemoogy iteracy context. We wi consider both genera reviews of the iterature on teaching critica thinking (eg, Abrami et a., 2008; Behar-Horenstein & Niu, 2011; Lai, 2011; Ten Dam & Voman, 2004) and aso more specific studies (eg, Anderson et a., 2001; Kuhn et a., 1997; Schwarz, Neuman, Gi, & Iya, 2003) to iustrate specific points. Behar-Horenstein and Niu (2011) review 42 empirica studies invoving attempts to teach critica thinking within a postsecondary context. Foowing Ennis (1989) they distinguish three different instructiona approaches: the genera approach in which critica thinking is taught as a generic standaone course without reference to specific subject matter, the infusion approach, in which critica thinking is taught within the context of a particuar subject matter area but with expicit attention to critica thinking within the subject area teaching, and an immersion approach in which critica thinking is taught within the context of a particuar subject matter area but without expicit attention to critica thinking within the subject area teaching. They concuded that greater success resuted when the teaching of critica thinking was expicit rather than impicit, and that treatments that asted onger tended to resut in greater degrees of success than treatments that were shorter in duration. These concusions fit with the notion of critica thinking as a ski (the iterature on ski earning demonstrating ceary that repeated practice of a ski heps enhance it, hence the reevance of the time dimension). They aso fit with the notion that metacognition is a key eement of critica thinking those courses with an expicit emphasis on critica thinking being more ikey to foster metacognitive monitoring of thought processes. The finding that expicit treatment of critica thinking during instruction yieds better outcomes than impicit treatment of critica thinking is supported by findings from Marin and Hapern (2011) and the outcome of the meta-anaysis by Abrami et a. (2008) discussed further beow. Munix (2012) aso notes the importance of repeated practice for the promotion of both ski enhancement and metacognition. Abrami et a. (2008) conducted a meta-anaytic review of 117 experimenta studies that sought to enhance critica thinking. Across a of the studies reviewed, there was a significant gain in critica thinking as a function of instruction, with stronger gains when critica thinking was associated with expicit teaching objectives compared to when it was associated with impicit teaching objectives. Better resuts were aso found when the teachers or instructors had had specia advanced training in preparation for teaching critica thinking skis. They aso noted that coaboration among students whie deveoping their critica thinking skis is advantageous.

66 Critica Thinking and Information Literacy 49 Abrami et a. s review provides positive evidence that critica thinking can indeed be improved by teaching interventions. Ten Dam and Voman (2004) undertook a quaitative review of 55 studies examining the effectiveness of instructiona formats for improving critica thinking. They concude that the characteristics of instruction that are assumed to enhance critica thinking are: paying attention to the deveopment of the epistemoogica beiefs of students; promoting active earning; a probem-based curricuum; stimuating interaction between students; and earning on the basis of rea-ife situations (p. 359). They conceptuaise critica thinking as the acquisition of the competence to participate criticay in the communities and socia practices of which the earner is a member, thus acknowedging a domain-specific eement and adopting a socia constructivist perspective on critica thinking. As noted above, meta-anayses and reviews of the iterature repeatedy emphasise the importance of students interacting together, preferaby on meaningfu tasks. Exampes of studies that have attempted to enhance the quaity of argumentative reasoning using peer interaction as a teaching and earning method incude those by Anderson et a. (2001), Kuhn et a. (1997), and Schwarz et a. (2003). Approaches using peer interaction and earner earner discussion are often justified with reference to Piaget s theory of deveopment (see the section in Chapter 5 on socia constructivism). Additionay, Crook (1998) suggests two other possibe mechanisms that might underpin the benefits that can be obtained from coaborative working. First, during discussion coaborators have to articuate their thoughts pubicy, which forces the carification of the nascent thoughts (see aso Paincsar, 1998), and renders them avaiabe for exporation. Second, coaborators may co-construct a singe, systematising object of thought (such as a hypothesis or a prediction). Accordingy, a number of investigators have appied peer interaction-based teaching methods to argumentative reasoning skis (Anderson et a., 2001; Kuhn et a., 1997; Schwartz et a., 2002). The Kuhn et a. study invoved repeated discussion with different partners of the topic of the effectiveness of capita punishment as a deterrent to murder, whist the Anderson et a. study invoved expicit instruction in evidence-based justification with specific reference to proposed project work, foowed by discussions of the design of the students own projects. A three of the studies cited above demonstrated that repeated engagement in peer discussion on a topic resuts in improved argumentative reasoning (eg, with greater provision of two-sided and comparative arguments and greater awareness of the coexistence of mutipe views in the Kuhn et a. study, and

67 50 From Information Literacy to Socia Epistemoogy better use of evidence-based justification in the Anderson et a. study as a function of having participated in the peer-based teaching intervention). To summarise, argumentative reasoning skis can fairy be caimed to be at the heart of critica thinking: the abiity to infer the reations among arguments with a particuar focus upon evidence and justification is centra to critica thinking. As noted above, there are reasons for beieving that argumentative reasoning capabiities are centra to a wide variety of information iteracy situations. Whist there is debate regarding the issue of whether critica thinking skis are generic and appy across situations or are instead domain-specific and therefore tied to particuar academic discipines, there is evidence that good critica thinking has both genera and specific eements and that argumentative reasoning skis constitute a generic set of critica thinking skis. It can aso be concuded that one strong impication of a skis perspective on critica thinking, namey that argumentative reasoning can be improved as a function of practice, has received empirica support. Improvements in such skis have been more strongy demonstrated when expicit attention is paid to critica thinking aongside subject matter materia, when meaningfu probem-based earning tasks are empoyed, when earners interact with each other over their tasks, and when instruction is spread over a proonged teaching intervention asting for weeks rather than one-shot instructiona sessions. There is here a striking impication for information iteracy education. Given the centraity of critica thinking/argumentative reasoning for information iteracy, and given the unsatisfactory resuts from singe-session one-shot teaching interventions in improving the effectiveness of critica thinking, it foows that singesession, one-shot teaching interventions wi be highy ikey to be unsatisfactory for teaching information iteracy. This in turn impies that information iteracy education woud benefit from a curricuum that does not simpy ist a set of desirabe characteristics to be incucated, but one that embodies an extended tempora progression of activities (possiby extending throughout the undergraduate s entire degree programme) that permits and faciitates repeated, guided practice in reevant information iteracy activities that deveop and buid in compexity and sophistication over time, in much the same way perhaps that research methods teaching typicay takes pace within a variety of discipines (See Chapters 5 and 6). The distinction between a ibrary/digita-skis-based notion of information iteracy and wider conceptions of socia and epistemoogica deveopment has impications for how we shoud teach information iteracy, and these impications sit we with our comments above about the desirabiity

68 Critica Thinking and Information Literacy 51 of having an extended tempora progression of activities in teaching information iteracy. There is currenty widespread agreement that the one-shot sot approach is unsatisfactory for a but the most narrowy described teaching and earning. That said, there wi obviousy be a pace for short introductions to more compex designs, or to top up knowedge and skis with new materia. However, it is cear from the Johnston and Webber definition (see page 8), and the various eaborated istings of information iteracy capabiities such as the ACRL Standards, end the UNESCO statement on Media and Information iteracy, that more compex pedagogica designs are required. How might we proceed? One option coud be to adopt a short-course approach. For exampe, this coud map the various eements of an iterative searching process onto an existing course tempate. The foowing seven eements coud be mapped onto seven sessions: acknowedge information need; identify sources; devise search strategies; conduct search; evauate resuts; refine search and repeat as required; appy fina resuts to the perceived need. Sessions woud vary in ength, mode and design of activities, depending on the constraints and opportunities of a given context. For exampe a first-year university cass conducted in attendance mode might depoy the sessions as part of a ecture sequence spread over 7 weeks. This coud take the form of seven workshop sessions, possiby backed by tutoria discussion. Lectures on information iteracy coud be offered outwith subject study timetabes or be incorporated as part of subject teaching. Assessments and examination of attainment coud be added either as a separate feature or as part of the assessment of subject earning. Evidenty a different concept of teaching woud ater the design options and coud resut in a course, which did not use ectures at a. For exampe, a probem-based earning approach using projects, team activities and so forth woud be an obvious aternative scenario. In a workpace context, the seven sessions coud be designed as a 1-week training course aigned to the specific requirements of a given staff group. Equay the seven sessions coud be condensed from 7 days to say 3.5 or 4 days, depending on the needs of the given workpace. Moving from the idea of attendance mode, one coud readiy envisage an onine version being created. A seven-session MOOC is quite feasibe and coud be made widey avaiabe free to the adut earner communities. Aied to both the academic and workpace scenarios sketched here, woud be the need for appropriate staff deveopment for ecturers and ibrarians, to compement their discipinary and professiona expertise. There might aso be a need for such provision for earning technoogists engaged in designing an information

69 52 From Information Literacy to Socia Epistemoogy iteracy MOOC. One coud, therefore, envisage a need to create some workshops to address the staff deveopment requirement. Arguaby it wi be much easier to create a sequence of sessions based on a process mode of information iteracy, than to design a course aimed at engaging earners with more hoistic and nuanced accounts. For exampe, the notion of deveoping information iteracy as eading to wise and ethica use of information in society, is perhaps a more compex pedagogica and organisationa deveopment chaenge. We suggest that our themes of critica thinking and socia epistemoogy are centra to devising appropriate pedagogica designs to meet such hoistic conceptuaisations of information iteracy and to enhance the skied performance of information iteracy over time. (We wi discuss the issue of course design in more detai in Chapter 6.) 3.4 CONCLUSIONS Returning to the exampe with which we opened this chapter, consider again the ecturer setting an essay for a student. We noted earier that both critica thinking and information iteracy are (ideay) intimatey bound up in the initia setting of the question and provision of the reading ist by the ecturer, the interpretation of the question and writing of the essay by the student, and the fina assessment and grading of the resuting essay by the ecturer. What is the contribution of ibrarians to this extended process? Whist the ecturer s pedagogica practice for information iteracy can be suppemented by contributions from ibrarians, the main responsibiity for initiating information iteracy education resides with the ecturer. Discharging that responsibiity goes beyond the individua teaching practice of that particuar ecturer to incude coaborative pedagogica decisions on the nature of curricuum and the design of particuar modues and casses within degree programmes. That said, at any point in the essay experience the student can go adrift for exampe, through insufficient motivation; faiure to understand the question; inadequate search skis; misunderstanding of the inteectua content of a given source and so on. Staying on track is perhaps effected by a combination of guidance and training by ecturers, ibrarians, study advisors and peers. To that end mechanisms of advice, guidance and feedback need to be put in pace so that student efforts can be supported. However it may be that the key characteristic which needs to be deveoped by the student over time is metacognition that is, the conscious, deiberate monitoring and reguation of one s own thought processes. We turn to an exporation of that area of psychoogica iterature in the next chapter.

70 Chapter 2 Critica Thinking and Information Literacy by Anthony Anderson and Bi Johnston If you iked this excerpt, the fu tite is avaiabe for purchase via the Esevier Store: Or you can view onine now if your institution has purchased this tite via ScienceDirect:

71

72 CHAPTER 2 Information Literacy Skis in the Research Process 2.1 INTRODUCTION Research is deepy founded in previous research. One of the main goas of research is to bring forth new knowedge. Therefore, a researcher must be informed about what has been pubished in the past. To create an overview of present knowedge, reevant information searches must be conducted. This requires good searching skis. Researchers must either have such skis themseves, or they wi need quaified hep from the ibrarian to conduct the necessary searches. Because information iteracy skis are key, both throughout the research process and in teaching and advisory activities, it is preferabe that both researchers and tenured professors obtain a reasonabe eve of skis. The competence buiding shoud be focused on two fronts: The daiy support to aready tenured personne shoud be designed to encourage schoars to deveop their own eve of information iteracy skis and overview of avaiabe sources over time. Furthermore, students shoud be introduced to information iteracy skis throughout their education. It is especiay important to ensure that postgraduate students get thorough training in how to search, evauate and use sources. Courses in information iteracy for PhD students is a strategicay important activity which ibraries shoud prioritise, primariy because it is of vita importance to the quaity of research that new candidates have famiiarised themseves with the forefront of new knowedge. Another reason why this shoud be prioritised is that it provides an eminent arena of cooperation with experienced professors, and fine-tuning of the information iteracy skis of postgraduates to the atest deveopments in the fied. This book aims to give some suggestions as to how the ibrary can be a part of the forma doctora education, and how communication and coaboration directy between the ibrarian and the postgraduate student can hep deveop better research support services. In the foowing, different understandings and approaches to information iteracy wi be presented. Understanding the theoretica framework of information New Roes for Research Librarians ISBN H.D. Daand and K.M. Wamann Hide, A rights reserved. 7

73 8 New Roes for Research Librarians iteracy is a favourabe way of understanding how it can be appied to practica professiona situations. 2.2 WHY SHOULD THE LIBRARY TAKE PART IN RESEARCH? The ibrary is part of a arger organisation and foows the university s strategic goas. Information iteracy is the abiity to transform information into knowedge and to pass this knowedge on in an ethica manner. This is aso true for research, but researchers aso have to get their knowedge pubished. During the ast 30 years, a digita revoution has made vast quantities of information avaiabe through the Internet. Good searching skis and critica thinking have never been more important to conduct high-quaity research. Researchers need to be information iterate to navigate the information avaiabe. Information iteracy can be viewed in different ways, and traditionay the behaviouristic, the phenomenoogica and the sociocutura views have been appied to this in different ways. These three views wi be presented in this chapter. The ibrary taking a more active part in research aso has impications for what part the ibrary pays in the university organisation. From being a coection of books and a circuation desk that ibrary users coud approach with questions and inquiries, the ibrary is moving in a direction in which the ibrarians are moving out from the circuation desk and into the research environments. More invovement in the research environment aso demands a higher eve of competence and knowedge about the research process from the iaison ibrarians. From a time when knowing the coections was enough, ibrarians must now be famiiar with research methodoogies and subjects to be on top of their game. This knowedge is best obtained through interaction and communication with the university s researchers. The ibrary shoud take part in research not ony for the sake of researchers, but aso for the sake of the ibrary s future. If the ibrary does not foow the deveopment that is taking pace, it wi be eft behind. Researchers needs and work methods are changing, and the ibrary must change with them to be a reevant and important part of the university. 2.3 DEVELOPING A COMMUNITY OF PRACTICE FOR RESEARCH SUPPORT Librarians working with research support woud aso benefit from taking with each other and sharing experiences, deveoping what can be referred to as a community of practice. In a nutshe, a community of practice is a

74 Information Literacy Skis in the Research Process 9 group of peope who share an interest in a domain of human endeavor and engage in a process of coective earning that creates bonds between them: a tribe, a garage band, a group of engineers working on simiar probems (Wenger, 2001). Creating a community of practice for iaison ibrarians working with research support has aso been described in a study from 2015 (Daand, 2015). Not ony does a community of practice provide the opportunity to discuss chaenges and experience and deveop a stronger professiona identity, it aso makes for earning and deveoping skis. This can make for a higher eve of sef-esteem for ibrarians and further to a higher eve of work satisfaction. 2.4 DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO INFORMATION LITERACY AND LEARNING Since its origin in 1974, information iteracy has been studied and described in different ways. Knowing how information iteracy can be understood can hep ibrary personne understand how it can be taught and earned. Three different approaches stand out as the most common views on information iteracy and wi be presented in this chapter. The fied has changed from the behaviouristic view as the most commony used way of viewing information iteracy towards a more sociocutura way of understanding information iteracy skis. As the quantities of information are increasing, subject-specific and speciaised skis become more and more important. 2.5 THE SOCIOCULTURAL APPROACH The sociocutura view on information iteracy states that it is something deveoped in community with others. Deveoping information iteracy skis is concerned with how information is found and used in a given socia situation. The sociocutura perspective states that information iteracy is deepy situated. It states that individuas deveop information iteracy via socia interaction in a context in which these skis are considered of vaue. Peope are sociaised into a context and situated within this context (Loyd, 2012). In research, this means that postgraduate students are sociaised into an academic environment with given work methods. In a sociocutura view, information iteracy is often thought of as the pura information iteracies as information handing skis are highy compex and reated to the subject at hand. Loyd s artice from 2007, Learning to put out the red stuff (Loyd, 2007), is concerned with a sociocutura view of information iteracy skis and how these are used in a work environment. In this artice, a firefighter s skis and

75 10 New Roes for Research Librarians abiity to earn through a socia setting are the focus. When starting a new job or entering a new fied of research, one needs to get famiiar with the ways of working, the tacit knowedge, the expicit knowedge and the traditions of the subject. This is often best earned through experience. Through experience, one is incuded in the environment and can observe and earn the ways of working. In many ways, academia is based on the understanding that one can acquire knowedge through text, and, in this way, the sociocutura view stands out and differs. 2.6 THE BEHAVIOURISTIC APPROACH Athough some research skis are highy situated and subject reated, there are certain generic skis that shoud be mastered by anyone with an interest in research. Generic information iteracy skis, such as searching, source criticism and ethica use of sources is a minimum of skis that need mastery to conduct independent research of a certain quaity. Easiy detectabe generic information iteracy skis for research incude: searching, source evauating, referencing and pubishing. Generic skis are measurabe and often viewed in a behaviouristic view. The behaviouristic view focusses on skis that are measurabe and transferrabe. This means that generic skis can be taught in one setting, and can be transferred to other settings. According to the American Library Association, an informationiterate individua is abe to: Determine the extent of information needed Access the needed information effectivey and efficienty Evauate information and its sources criticay Incorporate seected information into one s knowedge base Use information effectivey to accompish a specific purpose Understand the economic, ega and socia issues surrounding the use of information, and access and use information ethicay and egay (American Library Association, n.d.) The behaviouristic view has been the traditiona view in information iteracy, but it is highy simpistic in expaining a compex phenomenon. 2.7 THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL APPROACH Phenomenoogy is concerned with how peope understand, perceive and make use of different phenomena. A phenomenoogica understanding states that information iteracy is not transferrabe and generic but situated

76 Information Literacy Skis in the Research Process 11 and changes with content, situation and context as this is experienced. It distinguishes itsef from the behaviouristic isting of measurabe skis. Phenomenoogy sets out to understand information iteracy, as behaviourism wants to measure it. The focus is aso more on the individua and how he or she experiences it, with imited interest to the socia environment (Pierot & Hedman, 2009, p. 26) One interesting study using a phenomenoogica approach is Abdi s doctora dissertation in which she studied how web professionas experience information iteracy (Abdi, 2014). Phenomenography is an interpretive research approach through which the researcher is enabed to describe a phenomenon in the word through the eyes of others (Marton & Booth, 1997, cited in Abdi, 2014, p. 5). A phenomenoogica view of information iteracy is highy aware of the subjective experience behind statements describing information iteracy. In other words, one is describing how information iteracy is experienced, not necessariy how it in fact is. 2.8 PRACTICAL APPROACHES TO INFORMATION LITERACY The information andscape is changing, making more information than ever avaiabe at the tips of researchers fingers. They do not even have to visit their ibrary to access it, or even eave their offices. However, accessing the right research and using it in an ethica manner, sti requires some training. Traditionay, the behaviouristic view on information iteracy has been dominating how ibrarians assess ibrary users competencies. In ater years, the sociocutura approach has gained more infuence and become a more important way of understanding information behaviour. It is not enough for researchers to know basic information searching skis, they need to be sociaised into a subject-specific tradition. They start as novices and, hopefuy, end up as experts. This is not ony the case for researchers, but for a work environments, as iustrated in Loyd s artice from Loyd (2007, p. 183) emphasises that information iteracy is a way of knowing about an information andscape through embodiment within context. This is aso a strong argument for iaison ibrarians having subject-specific knowedge of the fied of research they are meant to support. Loyd iustrates that knowedge is based on famiiarity with the information andscape at hand, and this can ony be achieved through experience and practice in the fied of research. Many iaison ibrarians do not have a PhD degree in the subject for which they are expected to provide research support. This often resuts in ow sefesteem and uncertainty whether they are abe to provide research support.

77 12 New Roes for Research Librarians Severa studies outine types of important subjects to be taught in ibrary courses for doctora students. Searching, source evauation, citing, reference management and bibiometrics are isted as important subjects. The participants show a higher eve of confidence after attending the courses and see this as important. Madden (2014) aso concudes that By making itsef known, a ibrary can enhance its roe in supporting research, heping to reduce anxiety and potentiay decrease attrition rates (p. 103). 2.9 UNIVERSITY STRATEGIES AND GOALS Most universities wi have a goa of becoming a centre for exceent research and cimbing the ist of university rankings. Research of high quaity is an important instrument to make this happen. For high-quaity research, a we-structured support system must be present. This support system consists of academic staff supervisors, resources provided for the institution, adequate administrative procedures and genera institutiona quaity for research (Moses, 1994, p. 6). The ibrary is an important part of this support system. The ibrary and ibrarians have a great eve of competence in information structures and sources. Putting this knowedge in a system in which a researchers benefit wi be a fruitfu strategy to hep researchers be more productive. Oftentimes, much time is spent on things that coud be done more efficienty INFORMATION LITERACY AND RESEARCH The ibrary is undoubtedy an important part of research and of research support. Universities focus greaty on the throughput of PhD candidates and production of exceent research. Information iteracy skis are important when conducting independent research of high quaity. A goa for postgraduate students is to get them started with good information and research habits as soon as possibe, making it possibe for them to hit the ground running. We begun is haf done, and information iteracy skis making research and information handing more efficient wi be a good start. Athough information iteracy traditionay has been viewed and evauated in a behaviouristic approach, more recenty the focus has shifted to a more sociocutura view. This makes sense in the respect that researchers, and especiay new researchers as are postgraduate students, are in the midde of the process of being sociaised into a research and subject tradition. Certain skis are needed to conduct research, but this wi differ with

78 Information Literacy Skis in the Research Process 13 subjects, methodoogies and fieds of research. Therefore, not a information iteracy skis wi appy for a researchers. Some researchers wi even be abe to do research without even a sightest bit of information iteracy ski if we measure it in a behaviouristic way. Systematic searching and reference management may not be top knowedge among a researchers, but they may have other skis, perhaps in methodoogies that are briiant, and they are abe to receive hep from others to do these things for them. However, as the number of researchers increases, the demand to conduct independent research is aso rising. Faced with research, information handing is highy compex. However, some generic information iteracy skis shoud be emphasised to make the ibrary contribution visibe in research. The traditiona ibrary roes as keepers and guides to information are sti important. Teaching researchers how to search for, evauate and use sources in an ethica manner is sti a arge part of the ibrary s contribution. When enroed in PhD education, postgraduate students are on their way from novice to expert. To make this transition, some generic skis shoud be mastered. The instruction provided shoud be reevant to their fied of research, but for most postgraduate students the foowing skis are reevant: 2.11 SEARCHING In the start-up of a PhD programme, one needs to do a iterature review to investigate previous research. As research is becoming increasingy interdiscipinary, a range of databases coud be suggested. Librarians have the overview of databases that new students do not and wi be abe to provide seection advice. In Chapter 8, Important Research Support Services an introduction to search methodoogy success (Zins, 2000) wi be given as a suggestion to how ibrary instruction can be given to postgraduate students SOURCE EVALUATION Athough most postgraduates fee confident in evauating sources, some additiona requirements have been added as they step into the reaity as a researcher. Some journas are more sought after than others when it comes to both impact factor and academic ranking. This may not have been a focus point in their Masters thesis work.

79 14 New Roes for Research Librarians 2.13 ETHICAL USE OF SOURCES Postgraduates wi not ony use secondary sources and iterature, but aso primary sources they gather themseves. Interviews and questionnaires must be treated in an ethica manner. They wi aso have to use a arger quantity of sources than they have done before. Good habits organising references and using a quaity reference management programme wi be of use to postgraduates. Some may be reuctant to use this, because they did not do so in their Masters thesis and managed fine. Oftentimes, they wi regret not doing this during their thesis work, but by then too many references have been manuay added, and it wi take too ong to import them to a reference management programme. Good organisation of references wi make ethica use of sources easier, hence, decreasing the chance of pagiarism. Making ibrary services avaiabe and providing training in information iteracy skis coud contribute to more efficient research and consequenty better research resuts and high-quaity pubishing. This is aso ikey to fufi university strategy goas CONCLUSIONS Information iteracy is important to research. To conduct high-quaity research and hep their universities cimb nationa and internationa rankings, fufiing university strategies and goas for research, researchers shoud be information iterate. This must be made a priority in university management, and academic ibraries shoud work together with other departments in the university to strengthen and dispay their positions as an important part of research. Academic ibraries must aso be aware of their responsibiity as a part of the support system for exceent research. When it comes to information iteracy skis in the research process, it shoud be as integrated as possibe. Finding the right information and using it in an ethica manner is important for a researchers. How this is conducted is different from research environment to research environment. Therefore, information iteracy instruction and training must be adjusted to the fied of research. It is aso desirabe that the iaison ibrarian providing research support for the research environment has knowedge about the subject at hand and reevant iterature and methodoogies. Cose coaboration between ibrarians and researchers is a fruitfu way of deveoping information iteracy skis and a deeper understanding of the

80 Information Literacy Skis in the Research Process 15 research process. It is aso a usefu way of earning how information iteracy and ibrary services are important to research. REFERENCES Abdi, E. S. (2014). Web professionas: How do they experience information iteracy? Queensand University of Technoogy (Doctora dissertation). American Library Association. (n.d.). Information iteracy competency standards for higher education. Association of Coege & Research Libraries (ACRL). Retrieved September 11, 2015, from Daand, H. (2015). Library instruction not just for our users: skis upgrading for ibrarians as a way of increasing sef-confidence. LIBER Quartery, 25(1), Loyd, A. (2007). Learning to put out the red stuff: becoming information iterate through discursive practice. Library Quartery, 77(2), Loyd, A. (2012). Information iteracy as a sociay enacted practice: sensitising themes for an emerging perspective of peope-in-practice. Journa of Documentation, 68(6), Madden, R. (2014). Information behaviour of humanities PhDs on an information iteracy course. Reference Services Review, 42(1), Moses, I. (1994). Panning for quaity in graduate studies. In O. Zuber-Skerritt, & Y. Ryan (Eds.), Quaity in postgraduate education. (pp. 3 13). Kogan Page. Retrieved from eric.ed.gov/?id=ed Pierot, O., & Hedman, J. (2009). Âr informationskompetens överförbar? In M. Lindqvist, & P. Söderind (Eds.), Informationskompetens: En grundbok. Stockhom: Santérus. Wenger, E. (2001). Communities of practice. In N. J. S.B. Bates (Ed.), Internationa encycopedia of the socia & behaviora sciences (pp ). Oxford: Pergamon. Retrieved from Zins, C. (2000). Success, a structured search strategy: rationae, principes, and impications. Journa of the American Society for Information Science, 51(13), org/ / (2000)9999:9999<::aid-asi1034>3.0.co;2 2.

81 Chapter 3 Information Literacy Skis in the Research Process by Hide Drivenes Daand and Kari-Mette Wamann Hide If you iked this excerpt, the fu tite is avaiabe for purchase via the Esevier Store: Or you can view onine now if your institution has purchased this tite via ScienceDirect:

82 Visua iteracy meets information iteracy: how two academic ibrarians combined information science, and design in their careers Mary J. Snyder Broussard and Judith Schwartz 13 Introduction There is growing discussion of visua iteracy and a corresponding increase in the use of images and visua media in higher education. The Association of Coege and Research Libraries (ACRL) (2000) recenty fet it was time to address this trend when they pubished the Visua Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education in Additionay, one of the rationaes for the need to revise the ACRL Information Literacy Competency Standards is an exposion of [visua, data, and mutimedia modes of schoarship and earning] and the increasingy hybridized, muti-moda nature of earning and schoarship require an expanded conception of information iteracy earning and pedagogy beyond the mosty text-based focus of the Standards (Framework Taskforce, 2014: 3). Mayer and Godenstein (2009) demonstrate how the rising use of images in undergraduate teaching and earning is affecting ibrary services. They found that 85% of ibrarians who responded to their survey reported that they were instructing students on how to find images for schoo projects, incuding presentations, papers, posters, exhibits, as we as for fine arts, and theatre inspiration. Many aso hep facuty to find images for cass ectures, cass anaysis exercises, onine instruction, and pubication. Finay, a sma but significant number of respondents reported heping campus pubic reations (24%) and deveopment offices (21%) ocate images. Neary haf of respondents subscribed to ARTstor, with others reporting subscriptions to other image and map databases. Not ony do academic ibraries need visuay iterate professionas who can assist ibrary users in finding, formatting, creating, and dispaying images ethicay, but ibraries aso require attractive and effective visua materias for their website, marketing, instruction, and archives. Because, budgets in academic ibraries are usuay too restricted to hire professiona graphic designers and visua design is often so intertwined with professiona phiosophies and instructiona design that ibrarians with backgrounds in graphic design are we paced to serve many of the ibraries design needs. This chapter wi introduce two academic ibrarians previous experiences in graphic design departments and demonstrate how those experiences enhance their roe as ibrary professionas. Skis to Make a Librarian. Copyright 2015 Esevier Ltd. A rights reserved.

83 138 Skis to Make a Librarian Visua iteracy ACRL defines visua iteracy as: a set of abiities that enabes an individua to effectivey find, interpret, evauate, use, and create images and visua media (Hattwig, D., Burgess, J., Bussert, K. & Medaie, A. 2011). Five of the seven Visua Literacy Competency Standards are directy adapted from ACRL s Information Literacy Competency Standards. The additiona standards incude an expicit need to interpret and anayze visua media and the importance of being abe to create new media. Librarians with graphic design skis are uniquey abe to provide ibrary users with advanced assistance in the ast two standards, which invove creation and ethica use of images. Standard 6 of the Visua Literacy Competency Standards states, The visuay iterate student designs and creates meaningfu images and visua media. Librarians are increasingy coaborating with facuty and various support services on campus to support students as creators of new knowedge. In many (if not most) ibraries, reference ibrarians offer technica hep when students ask computer and software questions. Some ibraries even offer mutimedia abs with design software and access to arge-format printers in the ibrary. Regardess of whether or not one s ibrary has such a ab, there is an increasing use of images in academic courses and students are expected to incude images in posters, presentation sides, dispays, and papers. Librarians are a readiy avaiabe and highy visibe source of hep to these students who do not necessariy distinguish such questions from those reated to research hep. Reference ibrarians are often heping students print, create and manage PDFs, find images, save and format those images, seect the right software for the purpose, and use formatting features in commony used word-processing programs. Having a background in graphic design and photo manipuation greaty enabes a ibrarian s abiity to hep students as image creators. It enabes a ibrarian to assist students with the toos in design programs, use image-reated equipment, and take advantage of the esser-known design toos in more famiiar programs such as Power- Point, Pubisher, and Word. An advanced understanding of image quaity, fie size, and the merits of various fie types better enabes ibrarians to hep users prepare images for the end product. For exampe, a poster wi ikey need to be converted to a high-resoution PDF to be sent to a printer to avoid pixiation in arge format. In contrast, an image for a website shoud be set to the fina dimensions, and then saved as a ow-resoution JPEG, PNG, or GIF fie (each of which has its own benefits and drawbacks) in the smaest possibe fie size in order to oad as quicky as possibe. Power-Point sides can be compressed for better deivery of onine earning or to be oaded into course management systems with fie size imits. Librarians with graphic design experience are better equipped to assist with these advanced image creation questions. Standard 7 of the Visua Literacy Competency Standards addresses the need to understand the ethica, ega, socia, and economic issues surrounding the creation and use of images and visua media. When one has experienced the need to adhere stricty to the copyright aws that govern images in the pubishing and marketing word, one deveops a different perspective on promoting the ethica, and ega use

84 Visua iteracy meets information iteracy 139 of images created by others. A soid understanding of copyright and inteectua property is critica in the pubishing fied. The materias being produced are often widey distributed. The pubishing industry takes these very seriousy because inteectua property can be worth a ot of money and not respecting the estabished ega guideines can eave a pubisher or advertising firm subject to expensive awsuits. Considerabe resources are spent documenting who owns the inteectua rights of the materias to be pubished. Inteectua property, pagiarism, and copyright are foundations of the ethics of ibrarians, though their manifestations are different from the pubishing word. Librarians are egay bound by the contracts with content vendors, but beyond that they tend to be more concerned with the ethica side of this issue, whie the marketing and pubishing word tends to be more immediatey concerned with the ega side, and students and facuty are granted a great dea of freedom under Fair Use for educationa purposes. Yet sometimes it is usefu to have a stronger understanding of the ega side, and that is where a background in pubishing is particuary usefu. Many ibrarians do not reaize how different (and vasty more compex) copyright aws for images are than for text and how rights for use differ greaty depending on whether the image wi be used within the cassroom or for campus marketing materias such as theatre posters. A background in image rights research assists a ibrarian in providing facuty with copyright assistance for pubication. Design needs in academic ibraries Before entering ibrarianship, neither author was aware of the great need for design in ibraries. In ibrary schoo, Judith earned of the many ways ibraries use art and design incuding branding, wayfinding, signage, renovations, curating revoving art shows, ibrary art instaations, and academic pubishing in addition to presentations, newsetters, and iterary pubications. It was not unti Mary began her professiona career that she found her desire for creative projects was we matched to pubic services in an academic ibrary. This section wi focus on four areas in which the authors have experience with design in academic ibraries: marketing, web deveopment, instruction, and archives. Whie some of these needs can be outsourced to other campus departments or vendors, there are many reasons why some of these design jobs are best done by a ibrarian. Marketing and outreach directy affect what potentia ibrary users know about and fee towards the ibrary. Academic ibraries compete with students natura tendencies to run to free and easy information that often does not meet the quaity standards of their assignments. Libraries have simiar missions with facuty, staff, and the broader community. They need to estabish their brand as a source of high-quaity print, and onine resources, attractive spaces for individua and group study, and high eves of customer service. Above a, they must convey themseves as user-centered, and that begins with the marketing materia inviting potentia users to the physica and virtua ibrary.

85 140 Skis to Make a Librarian Effective marketing reies heaviy on visua design as the visua appea is what initiay grabs viewers attention. Langton and Campbe (2011) write, The word is visua. We use our eyes to take in much of the content that infuences our behavior, tempers our reactions, and informs our decisions. Whether it s on the Web, in a brochure, or ive in person, the most effective soutions are the ones that unexpectedy grab our attention. Before viewers even read the ibrary s marketing materias, they are absorbing the non-verba messages communicated through images, coor, and ayout. Students (the primary audience of academic ibrary marketing) are bombarded with posters and emai messages. When they see a poster from the ibrary, they make instant, unconscious judgments based on visua design about whether reading the text is worth their time and energy. If the answer is no, they wi not even read the text. It is therefore important for the ibrary s printed and digita marketing materias to be visuay attractive in order to be effective. Outreach events often bring a particuar segment of the wider community into the ibrary with the assumption that some attendees are not reguar ibrary users but have the potentia to become so. These events aso tie into the non-academic mission of the arger institution, which is to provide students with fun and safe extracurricuar activities that become an important part of a student s overa coege experience. Exacty what such an outreach event entais wi vary depending on the particuar needs of a ibrary s users and the organizationa cuture of the arger institution. For exampe, an outreach event at a university of mosty non-traditiona commuter students may be a forma open-house event, whie an event at a residentia coege with mosty traditiona students may ook a ot ike a program one woud expect to find at a pubic ibrary. Regardess of the type of cuture, these outreach events often invove visua design to engage participants, as we sha demonstrate ater in this chapter. The academic ibrary s website serves as a front door to the ibrary s onine information resources and finding toos, marketing the ibrary s services and coections, and providing various instructiona resources. Visua design pays an extremey important roe in website deveopment, being neary indistinguishabe from usabiity, information architecture, and overa effectiveness (Krug, 2006; Niesen & Loranger, 2006.) Lindgaard, G., et a. (2011) cite numerous studies that tie visua appea of a website with perceived quaity, usefuness, and trustworthiness. Many academic ibraries are either required or choose to use the arger institution s web theme, which was most often deveoped by a group of trained and skied graphic designers, web coders, and marketing speciaists. This requires ibrarians to negotiate with those administrators responsibe for that theme to make sure it meets the unique needs of ibrary users. However, if such negotiations are successfu, this faciitates the ibrary in providing their website visitors with a professiona, and visuay appeaing first impression. Within the institution s web theme, the ibrary shoud have a visuay iterate individua to create cear, uncuttered pages, use images to portray effective messages, and create an information structure that aows users to easiy find what they are ooking for. Newe (2004) studied ibrary website images and found that ibrarians needed a greater understanding of visua communication principes as they were inadvertenty communicating undesirabe messages to potentia ibrary users. Library website

86 Visua iteracy meets information iteracy 141 managers shoud expoit the power of images to portray it as a user-centered organization dedicated to quaity. A recent survey of American ibrary directors shows that a dedication to ibrary instruction is a neary universa priority of academic ibraries (Howard, 2014), and design aso pays a roe in creating effective instructiona materias. In fact, design is so important to instruction that Grassian and Kapowitz (2009) dedicated an entire chapter to it in their important book tited Information Literacy Instruction: Theory and Practice.Theywrite, Librarians may not be trained in instructiona or graphic design, yet often they must create a range of instructiona materias and formats to support both in-person and remote earning for many ages and skis (Grassian and Kapowitz: 173). Their chapter integrates visua design into suggestions for instructiona design, with a breakdown of how visua design shoud be adapted depending on the medium in which the instruction is deivered. They discuss the need for white space, the importance of coor choices on academic performance, how to propery use graphics, and the effect of font choice. Librarians often rey on cass handouts to remind students of the more mechanica or factua information when the students go to do the actua research after the cass. Even with few coors or images other than an occasiona screenshot, cear organization, ayout, use of white space, and font seection make an enormous difference in the educationa effectiveness of these cass handouts. Simiar design principes are required in the creation of onine tutorias as we, with the ikeihood that more video, audio, and coor wi be necessary, as we as the abiity to seect an appropriate technoogy to create and deiver the tutoria to potentia users. Many academic ibraries manage the coege or university s archives. These archives house reics and documents of the institution s past to inform current students, administrators, as we as hep aumni continue to connect with the institution. Many archives are making their coections more accessibe by digitizing them, which is faciitated by having easy access to someone with an advanced knowedge of formatting and ethicay managing digita images. Additionay, as one key purpose of an institutiona archive is to hep various constituents connect with the institution, graphic design skis aow the ibrary to create attractive dispays, pubications, bogs, and materias for outreach events. The authors previous experiences The two authors of this chapter have each worked in graphic design departments in previous empoyment positions. Each author wi introduce her former ife in pubishing and marketing and describe how the skis deveoped in those positions enhance their current careers as academic ibrarians. In the context of this chapter, Mary and Judith have very compementary experiences. Whie Mary ony spent a year in a graphic design department and the skis she earned were more reated to design software than design, the skis deveoped in that position have enabed many creative projects in her position as an instructiona services ibrarian, though they bear itte resembance to a traditiona idea of graphic design. In contrast, Judith is just beginning her career as an academic ibrarian, but had many years of experience as an art director

87 142 Skis to Make a Librarian and graphic designer. Her projects in ibraries more cosey resembe those of a professiona graphic designer. Their combined experiences offer a unique perspective. Mary J. Snyder Broussard Shorty after obtaining her bacheor s degree in French and German from Miami University of Ohio, Mary Broussard obtained a job as a copyeditor in a chidren s craft suppy company in the Chicago area. The primary duties of the position incuded checking accuracy, speing, and grammar on product packaging, and creating project instructions. Furthermore, she transated a packaging and instructions into French for any products destined for Canada. As the main function of this position revoved around packaging, this position was housed in the graphic design department. Secondary duties incuded corresponding with reevant magazines to get the company s products featured and posting images and project ideas on the company s website. Whie the position was not that of a graphic designer, she was surrounded by graphic designers and expected to earn basic skis in the popuar graphic design software Adobe Photoshop (used to manipuate photographs) and Iustrator (used to create ine drawings). Photoshop skis were particuary important for the craft project ideas dispayed on the company website, as this invoved not ony creating attractive projects with craft foam, pom poms, and pipe ceaners, but aso generating attractive photographs of the project, generating printabe tempates, and manipuating purchased stock photographs so that the company website showed chidren paying with new products. Inserting a company s product into stock photography is a common practice for issues of ease and cost. The professiona graphic designers that she worked with were busy working on packaging, so she had to quicky earn Photoshop we enough to make the images for the website beievabe. During the time that Mary was in this position, she decided to attend ibrary schoo. She took many experiences and skis from her 14 months in this position, but most tangibe of these skis were those directy reated to graphic design software, with some basic skis obtained in marketing, and website deveopment. After competing her MLS degree at Indiana University, she began work as an instructiona services ibrarian at Lycoming Coege, a sma private residentia institution in centra Pennsyvania, where she has been for neary eight years. At her ibrary, there is a non-ibrarian empoyee who serves as production artist for officia ibrary marketing, incuding the popuar READ posters of campus professors, and student groups. However, Mary has found that it is often critica for a ibrarian to directy create some graphics. This eiminates the need to aways have to expain one s vision to someone ese. There have been many times in Mary s experience that the graphics were too intertwined with technoogy or instructiona design to be given to someone ese. From very eary in her position at Lycoming Coege, Mary took advantage of Banned Books Week to create an outreach event around her ove of young adut iterature. It began as a dispay the first year with a poster and an offering of frequenty chaenged books from the ibrary s coections and quicky deveoped into a series of trivia games that invite student, staff, and facuty participation. Each of these Banned Books Week events has invoved graphics skis, either in the form of

88 Visua iteracy meets information iteracy 143 advertising or to create the trivia games. In 2009, Mary used Adobe Iustrator to create eeven pictograms representing we-known, frequenty chaenged book tites (see Figure 13.1). She posted the pictograms around campus and asked students and facuty to submit competed game sheets to be entered into a raffe for a oca gift certificate. In 2010, she used Iustrator again to recreate frequenty chaenged book covers stripped of a text. These were posted around the ibrary and Lycoming community members were invited to submit their tite guesses to be entered into a raffe. There was a significant amount of tak about these trivia programs, but ony a few students took the time to submit game sheets. Participation increased enormousy as the annua trivia games moved to the ibrary s Facebook page with instructions to submit individua guesses for each book tite by emai. The increase in the participation and visibiity of this particuar outreach event has meant that each subsequent year Facebook has been used with simiar resuts in attracting arge numbers of participants. The trivia games have evoved over the years, but they have aways used design software in their creation. One of Mary s primary duties is to maintain the ibrary s extensive website. At Lycoming Coege, the ibrary uses the coege s website tempate which was created by professiona designers and web deveopers on staff. The ibrary director and she have worked with the campus web deveoper to make minor accommodations to the campus tempate and guideines to best meet the needs of ibrary users. This aows the ibrary to provide an attractive and sophisticated page that has a consistent fee with other coege pages. Within the web theme, Mary uses images to portray the ibrary as a friendy pace and promote specia events. She aso formats ogos and images to be inserted into database headers as that customization feature becomes more prevaent among database vendors. Mary has used graphics software and basic visua design for a number of instructiona purposes. She teaches approximatey 50 information iteracy casses per academic year. Layout, contrast, and hierarchy are important factors she considers when creating handouts for each of these casses. Images such as screenshots are used when they are ikey to be hepfu, and they often require we-positioned, succinct, and uncuttered abes. One of Mary s favorite exampes of graphics skis transferring to academic ibrarianship is the game-based earning it has enabed at Lycoming Coege. In 2013, the Higher Education Horizon Report cited games and gamification as one of the upcoming technoogy trends that wi change education (Johnson et a., 2013). Gamification has the potentia to hep earners embrace the assigned earning goas and absorb more information because students are enjoying the earning process. Buiding educationa games requires skis in many areas incuding understanding of basic game mechanics, good pedagogy, reevant technoogy, and appeaing graphics. This is ideay done by a team. However, effective educationa games are often buit for specific, oca earning goas, and therefore often do not have significant resources aocated to them. Mary has worked to make effective, sma-scae games where she pays the primary part in a aspects of game deveopment, incuding the graphic design. She has worked with coeagues to create a number of onine, rea-word, and hybrid games, each of which invoved using design software such as Adobe Iustrator, Photoshop, Dreamweaver, and Fash.

89 144 Skis to Make a Librarian Figure 13.1(a) (b) Two exampes of ine drawings created in Adobe Iustrator for the annua Banned Books Week trivia contest. (a) A pictogram representing I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings by Maya Angeou. (b) Representation of the cover of Twiight by Stephanie Meyer. Images designed by Mary J. Snyder Broussard.

90 Visua iteracy meets information iteracy 145 In an effort to redesign the freshman orientation event to be more engaging for students, it was turned into a treasure hunt game where students competed educationa activities to find etters and compete a ransom note that reveaed the ocation of the missing unofficia campus mascot (Gregory & Broussard, 2011). One of the earning objectives was for students to simpy acknowedge the existence of three ocations; the vending machines, the Leisure Reading Coection, and the Academic Resource Center (important, but not administrativey part of the ibrary). For these three ocations, we borrowed a briiant ow-tech augmented reaity game idea from Burke, Kreyche, and Maharas s Ran Some Ransom game deveoped for the 2009 Come Out and Pay festiva. In Ran Some Ransom payers ined up transparencies to views in Times Square. The transparencies outined what existed in reaity, with additiona circes highighting etters to be used in the ransom note. To re-create this idea of ow-tech augmented reaity for the freshman ibrary orientation, Mary imported a digita picture of each of the three ibrary ocations into Adobe Iustrator, traced the photograph, and highighted a etter to be used for the ransom note (see Figure 13.2 beow). Figure 13.2 A photograph of Lycoming Coege s Academic Resource Center (ARC) sign next to a transparency outine. When payers ook through the transparency and ine-up the outines to the poster, the C becomes highighted as Letter 8 for their ransom note. Photograph and ine art designed by Mary J. Snyder Broussard.

91 146 Skis to Make a Librarian Mary created Gobin Threat, an onine game to teach students how to identify and avoid pagiarism, in 2009 using Adobe Fash (Broussard & Oberin, 2011). Whie she had not earned Fash as a copy editor, her knowedge of Adobe Iustrator greaty faciitated the earning curve in drawing figures in Fash. When the graphics and programming were competed, Mary worked with a coeague to write the questions. The resuting project s success has been enormous. Not ony was it very we-received on Lycoming s campus, she has received over 70 requests to use or ink to the game from other schoos, coeges, and universities around the word and has identified over 40 additiona institutions that ink to the game from their website. Due to this high voume of externa traffic to Gobin Threat, it is one of the most visited pages on the entire campus website. This is an enormous return on the investment of time to deveop the game. Whie Mary s time as a copy editor was reativey short, and it woud be a far stretch to consider her a graphic designer, she is a web designer, an instructiona designer, and a game designer. She continues to use Adobe Photoshop, Iustrator, and Dreamweaver on a reguar basis in her duties as an academic ibrarian. Knowedge of this software has enabed her to earn other software such as Adobe Fash and HTML5 to buid onine games and tutorias. Furthermore, she earned a great dea about the design and editing process, which have further inspired and enabed her creative outreach and instructiona projects. Judith Schwartz Judith is working on combining her career skis as information professiona, and visua-design communicator. Prior to her ibrary career, she worked as an art director and design manager on numerous textbook projects at various design studios for major educationa pubishers in the K-12, ESL, schoary and reference, and university press markets. With a BFA from The Cooper Union Schoo of Art and an MA in Advertising and Communication Design from Syracuse University s Coege of Visua and Performing Arts, Judith has designed book interiors and covers, ogos, and marketing materias for cients incuding McGraw-Hi, St. Martin s Press, Schoastic, Highights, Harcourt, Pearson, and Oxford University Press. Her career has incuded coaboration with editors, authors, designers, iustrators, photographers, photo researchers, and marketing teams to deveop marketabe book products. Besides designing, doing image manipuation, photo research, and assigning projects to iustrators and photographers, she has years of experience managing projects and staff, as we as working with outside vendors and printers. At various times throughout her career she has been an adjunct professor teaching graphic design-reated courses in a cassroom setting at Long Isand University s Southampton Campus and onine at The Art Institute of Pittsburgh, Onine Division. Judith is adept with graphics software and uses the Adobe Creative Suite. Due to the changing cimate in the pubishing industry, outsourcing, and other factors, she became interested in transitioning to a career in digita archiving. She

92 Visua iteracy meets information iteracy 147 decided to go to ibrary schoo and graduated from the Pamer Schoo, Long Isand University C.W. Post in the winter of 2012 with an MSLIS and Certificate of Archives and Records Management. Whie she entered ibrary schoo eaning towards a digita archives career, she became increasingy interested in academic ibrarianship. She began interning at Hunter Coege Library/CUNY as a reference and instruction ibrarian, and became an adjunct at Hunter upon receiving her degree. She was abe to try out many of her new skis and fet very we suited to working on archiva projects, teaching, and onine and face-to-face research assistance with students. Judith thought her graphic design career was going to be very separate from her new career direction and was panning on maintaining two separate identities, but to her surprise, it has evoved into one career. She has had interesting short-term positions and internships that have enabed her to utiize many of her prior career skis in her current fu-time position as a ibrarian. In Juy 2013, Judith was hired as a ibrarian at Medgar Evers Coege, City University of New York. Medgar Evers is an urban campus in Brookyn with an entirey commuter student popuation. In addition to teaching information iteracy one-shot casses and her daiy reference desk duties, Judith supervises interibrary oan. Graphic design quicky became a reguar part of her job responsibiities as we. It was not ong after Judith began working at Medgar Evers Coege that she was asked to design a set of bookmarks to promote the ibrary s services whie the ibrary on campus was being renovated (see Figure 13.3). The purpose was to attract students to the ibrary s temporary ocation and the sogan was Aive at the Library. The ibrary administration wanted four bookmarks for the departments incuding Reference and Information Literacy, Instructiona Media Services, Circuations and Access Services, and the Archives, and Specia Coections, Judith s goa was to make the bookmarks fun, coorfu, and inviting. She chose a bright coor paette for the vertica sidebars so each department woud have its own coor identity. She sought out images from the ibrary archives that were reevant to the schoo s mission of civi rights and socia justice. She was aso abe to downoad royaty-free art that she was abe to ater manipuate in Adobe Iustrator. The bookmarks have been distributed at the circuation desk, the reference desk, in instruction casses, and at ibrary exhibits. Additionay, another coege office distributes the bookmarks to potentia students at area high schoos. The initia printing of bookmarks proved to be so successfu, they have undergone a second printing. Judith and the ibrary have received many positive comments about the bookmarks from students, facuty, and other campus offices. They were such a promotiona success that they evoved into her creating additiona projects incuding a media screen side to advertise ibrary services on monitor dispays around campus and a arge tri-fod tabe dispay board used as a backdrop at events when promoting the ibrary (see Figure 13.4). In December of 2013, the Medgar Evers Coege Library aunched a new outreach event caed Hoiday Extravaganza, which incuded music, art and photography, break-dancing, and poetry created by the taented ibrary staff. Judith designed the coorfu program and performance agenda that woud be handed out at the concert and a corresponding media screen side that woud be projected on the monitor dispays around campus. As Judith was aso showing some of her own photo coage

93 148 Skis to Make a Librarian Figure 13.3 Bookmarks: promote the ibrary s services and direct students to a temporary ocation. Bookmarks designed by Judith Schwartz. Figure 13.4 Media Screen Side: promotes the ibrary s services on monitor dispays around campus. Side designed by Judith Schwartz.

94 Visua iteracy meets information iteracy 149 Figure 13.5 Event program brochure: Hoiday Extravaganza. Program designed by Judith Schwartz. artwork at the event, she decided to carry some of the themes over into the program design (see Figure 13.5). She aso photographed the ibrary staff for the program and manipuated images in Photoshop to fit the project specifications. The Hoiday Extravaganza event was a major coaborative effort and a great way for the ibrary staff to work as a team. Whie the turnout for the event was sma, it reay showed the ibrary staff was Aive at the Library in the temporary ibrary space. There was a great dea of enthusiasm generated by the event and this wi surey be an annua occurrence for years to come. Shorty afterwards, the archivist at Medgar Evers Coege was interested in producing a pubication of Library Resources for Back History Month and asked Judith to participate in the design. The main content of the pamphet consisted of a bibiography of books that coud be found in the ibrary s Specia Coections, Caribbean Coection, and ebook Coection. In order to maintain the ibrary brand, Judith designed the pamphets to compement the Archives and Specia Coections bookmark so it ooked ike it was part of a series (see Figure 13.6). The pamphets were dispayed at the reference and circuation desk and were brought to severa outreach events during Back History Month. Judith s initia interest in archives ed to severa interesting archiva projects. Whie she was in ibrary schoo, she vounteered and ater became a paid contractor on a project as an archiva photo and fim researcher for a documentary reated to housing

95 150 Skis to Make a Librarian Figure 13.6 Pamphet: Back Diaspora, a bibiography of seect books in the Specia Coections, Caribbean Research Library, and Eectronic Resources. Pamphet designed by Judith Schwartz. rights activism on the ower east side of New York City. Her job responsibiities incuded ocating photos and fim footage in onine digita photo repositories in addition to research at various historica archives. Exceent data management and organization skis were essentia, as she needed to keep track of where images originated, box numbers and foders, onine repositories, and image banks. She managed and conducted the tedious photo review meeting process with the other participants. Copyright issues and permissions were aso addressed. In addition to the documentary, Judith worked on severa digitizing projects at Hunter Coege s Archives and Specia Coections. She scanned and digitized deteriorating scrapbooks of cippings and images that entaied detaied retouching, repairing, and piecing images together in Photoshop, and then created PDF fies. Having estabished a soid career in the pubishing fied, Judith is a true graphic designer and artist. Her extensive experience with printers has enabed her to work with the campus print shop and to overcome numerous technica issues that arose in creating a quaity product for her ibrary. Her projects and the processes to deveop them more cosey resembe those of a professiona design firm, aowing the ibrary to project a very professiona and sophisticated image in their marketing materias. Abstract skis The past experiences of the authors have provided each with advanced visua iteracy skis. The specific projects described in this chapter show how these skis have benefited their respective ibraries. Yet there are many other reated skis gained from working in the fied of graphic design that adapt we to ibrary work. This section wi

96 Visua iteracy meets information iteracy 151 discuss those skis, and how they can faciitate one s preparation to become an academic ibrarian and assist users in unique ways. Organization, in a of its manifestations, is incrediby important in the marketing and pubication words. Everyone must work together to create an exceent end product that is visuay peasing, easy to read, editoriay correct, and deivered on time. This means that designers must be organized, attentive to detais, and abe to manage their time we. Organization is the foundation of ibraries. Resources shoud be stored in an extremey systematized manner, and finding systems shoud be buit to work within that structure to enabe users to efficienty ocate reevant resources. Librarians need a soid understanding and appreciation for the organization of ibrary systems in order to meet the mission of the ibrary. A key part of this organized environment is good time management. It is crucia to create deadines and keep to the schedue. However, because there are many parties invoved in the process, it is important to ceary communicate this schedue with everyone invoved. Perhaps one of the more chaenging aspects of doing graphic design in the ibrary environment is that academic ibraries are ess deadine-driven and aso most ibrarians and administrators are not aware of the time the creative process requires. Good communication is particuary important to hep them set reaistic expectations in regard to a schedue that works for everyone. As a copy editor in a graphic design department, it was Mary s primary responsibiity to pay cose attention to detais. On the packaging, the image, a words, and product number a needed to correspond to the item contained within. Speing and grammar aso had to be perfect. Many aspects of the packaging needed to be carefuy checked during mutipe rounds of edits. Sending fauty packaging art to the manufacturers was expensive and time consuming to correct. It needed to be accurate when sent. This attention to detai is important to ibraries as we. Cataogers and indexers must be precise in their organization if patrons and reference ibrarians are to be abe to find the items when needed. Marketing materias need to be attractive and editoriay correct in order to be effective. Finay, mistakes in computer code may render parts of the ibrary s website or a tutoria unusabe. A fina important aspect of organization is good fie management. It is important for a department to estabish fie-naming conventions, organize fies so they are findabe ater, and frequenty back-up fies. Designers maintain the PSD (Photoshop Document) ayered fies so they can easiy modify them if needed, though these must be converted to other fie types such as high-resoution JPEGs or PDFs for printing or ow-resoution JPEGs for upoading on a website. As mutipe fies are created for a singe project, some of which may require specia fonts, a fies shoud then be propery stored at the concusion of the project. In a ibrary, organized fie management aows for items to be easiy found by various members of the staff for editing, reuse, or upgrading to new technoogy. In addition to organizationa skis, coaboration is aso an important ski for designers. Throughout Judith s graphic design career, managing and designing textbooks was an extremey coaborative process. She participated in group concept meetings with authors, editors, and designers, aying out books and deciding what

97 152 Skis to Make a Librarian images and text woud fa on each page, and assigned photo specs for historica images so that researchers coud then acquire the images from stock photography agencies, museums, and archives. She was aso a photo researcher on severa socia studies book projects. Mary worked cosey with graphic designers, members of the company s marketing team, magazine editors, and transators. There are so many specia skis required in marketing and pubication that coaboration and good communication are crucia in working towards a quaity end product. Libraries are aso coaborative environments. Librarians in many areas of speciaization work together as we as with paraprofessionas and student workers to provide quaity coections, and services. Librarians aso work with vendors to ensure eectronic toos are working propery, and become more usefu to the enduser over time. They coaborate with facuty to provide instruction, with patrons to meet their individua information needs, and with various student groups and other organizations on campuses to market their services and generay participate in the mission of the arger institution. Archivists often work with oca historians and aumni to coect artifacts that represent the institution s history. These are just a few exampes of the many ways ibrarians work coaborativey to meet the community s needs. Concusion The need for visuay iterate professionas in academic ibraries is twofod. A ibrarian with advanced knowedge in the area of image ethics and creation can better support students and facuty in an academic environment that is using an increasing number of pictures and photographs. Additionay, ibraries have many design needs, particuary in the areas of web deveopment, marketing, instruction, and archives. Whie many ibrarians deveop a eve of proficiency in these areas, having at east one ibrarian on staff with additiona skis and training in design can be quite vauabe. Mary and Judith are creators and designers in addition to ibrarians. They ove the coaborative nature of ibrarianship that offers the chance to work cosey with students, facuty, and staff in other departments. They aso ove that academic ibrarianship offers so many creative outets, which provide a great dea of persona satisfaction. At the same time, academic ibraries have an important institutiona need for in-house design, and software skis in many areas. This chapter shows a number of exampes where their design skis have met a need in their respective ibraries, and there were many more exampes that coud have been incuded. There is definitey a pace for innovative, visuay iterate ibrarians who can combine a knowedge and dedication to the phiosophies of academic ibrarianship with various forms of design skis.

98 Visua iteracy meets information iteracy 153 References Association for Coege and Research Libraries. (2000). Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education. Avaiabe from, informationiteracycompetency, Accessed 10 August Broussard, M. J. S., & Oberin, J. U. (2011). Using Onine Games to Fight Pagiarism: A Spoonfu of Sugar Heps the Medicine Go Down. Indiana Libraries, 30, Burke, E., Kreyche, C. M., & Maharas, L. (2009). Ran Some Ransom, Come Out & Pay Festiva. Avaiabe from: Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education Taskforce. (2014). Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education, draft. Avaiabe from: istandards/wp-content/upoads/2014/02/framework-for-il-for-he-draft-1-part-1.pdf, Accessed Grassian, E. S., & Kapowitz, J. R. (2009). Information Literacy Instruction: Theory and Practice. New York: Nea-Schuman Pubishers. Gregory, A. S., & Broussard, M. J. S. (31 March 2011). Unraveing the Mystery of the Library: A Big Games Approach to Library Orientation, Presentation at ACRL Phiadephia: PA. Avaiabe from: content/conferences/confsandpreconfs/nationa/2011/papers/unraveing_the_myste.pdf, Accessed Hattwig, D., Burgess, J., Bussert, K., & Medaie, A. (2011). ACRL Visua Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education. Avaiabe from: visuaiteracy, Accessed Howard, J. (2014). What Matters to Academic-Library Directors? Information Literacy, Chronice of Higher Education. utm_medium¼en, Accessed Johnson, L., Adams Becker, S., Cummins, M., Estrada, V., Freeman, A., & Ludgate, H. (2013). NMC Horizon Report: 2013 Higher Education Edition. Austin, TX: The New Media Consortium. Krug, S. (2006). Don t Make Me Think: A common sense approach to Web usabiity. Berkey, CA: New Riders. Langton, D., & Campbe, A. (2011). Visua Marketing: 99 Proven Ways for Sma Businesses to Market with Images and Design. Hoboken, NJ: Wiey. Lindgaard, G., Dudek, C., Sen, D., Sumegi, L., & Noonan, P. (2011). An exporation of reations between visua appea, trustworthiness and perceived usabiity of homepages. ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction, 18, Mayer, J., & Godenstein, C. (2009). Academic Libraries Supporting Visua Cuture: A Survey of Image Access and Use. Art Documentation, 28, Newe, T. (2004). Representing Library Users and Professionas on Websites: A Visua Grammar Approach for Library Image-Makers and Library Educators. Journa of Education for Library and Information Science, 4, Niesen, J., & Loranger, H. (2006). Prioritizing Web Usabiity. CA, New Riders: Berkey.

99 Chapter 4 Visua iteracy meets information iteracy by Mary J. Snyder Broussard, Judith Schwartz If you iked this excerpt, the fu tite is avaiabe for purchase via the Esevier Store: Or you can view onine now if your institution has purchased this tite via ScienceDirect:

100 Access Esevier ebooks where you want on the tabet, ereader or mobie device of choice! Esevier partners with a major ebook retaiers so that you can purchase content from your preferred onine retaier. CLICK HERE» for a fu isting of our retai partners! Have access to ebooks through your institution? Esevier content is aso avaiabe on patforms found in most academic, corporate, government, and medica ibraries. CLICK HERE» for a fu isting of our ibrary partners to see if your institution aready subscribes!

101 Science information iteracy and the roe of academic ibrarians 6 Have you ever noticed, when you teach, that the moment you start sharing a persona story with your students, they instanty snap to attention? You understand the vaue of stories. But some teachers don t insert many stories into their essons, because they re worried that they don t have gripping stories to te, or that they aren t good story teers. So maybe it s worth identifying which kinds of stories are effective in making ideas stick. The answer is this: virtuay any kind. Chip Heath & Dan Heath (Made to Stick: Why Some Ideas Survive and Others Die, 2010) 6.1 Is there a future for information iteracy instruction? With the number of reference questions decreasing, most journas being avaiabe onine, and database interfaces becoming more user-friendy, what is eft for subject/ iaison ibrarians to do? As information, research, and education are becoming increasingy digita, academic ibraries are forced to redefine their roe in supporting education and research. Teaching information iteracy is a major responsibiity for subject/iaison ibrarians, but advances in information retrieva systems, such as improved natura anguage searching and Semantic Web, coud change their roe in this area. This new environment is particuary chaenging for ibrarians who were trained to provide traditiona ibrary services. A Dephi study based on a survey of 13 information iteracy experts ooked at the possibe changes in information iteracy and the roe of ibrarians in it in the next ten years (Saunders, 2009). The study deveoped three possibe scenarios for the future of ibrary instruction services and tried to answer the foowing questions: How prevaent wi information iteracy programs be within the higher education curricuum? Wi academic ibrarians and ibrary organizations pay a significant roe in the instruction and assessment of information iteracy skis? If so, in what area(s) wi they concentrate? Lasty, wi their roe be diminished as teaching facuty take on more of the responsibiity for integrating this instruction into their own curricua? The first scenario adhered to the status quo, in which the situation remains as it is now. According to the second scenario, teaching facuty wi take over instruction and assessment of information iteracy, a deveopment that wi eave ibrarians marginaized. The third scenario envisioned a cose coaboration between facuty Managing Scientific Information and Research Data Copyright 2015, Sveta Baykoucheva. Pubished by Esevier Ltd. A rights reserved.

102 44 Managing Scientific Information and Research Data and ibrarians in sharing information-iteracy responsibiities. Most respondents to this survey showed optimism about the future of information iteracy in academia and beieved that ibrarians wi continue to have a roe to pay through coaboration with facuty. The possibiity that ibrarians coud be repaced under certain circumstances has not been excuded, though, mainy because the improved and more intuitive information retrieva systems coud make earning many information iteracy skis unnecessary. Departments have unique cutures, but there is aso a specific cuture in every university. An artice discussed the importance and the difficuty of creating a pervasivey coaborative cuture required by information iteracy programs and recognized that organizationa cuture pays a roe in campus readiness for information iteracy (Bennett, 2007). Another artice suggested that ibrarians shoud avoid sticking to a ibrary-centric program and set an information iteracy path that is reevant and vauabe to course instructors and is aigned with the educationa goas and mission of their institutions (Brasey, 2008). It aso described a possibe framework for coaborations between ibrarians and teaching facuty that coud ead to successfu information iteracy programs. Estabishing partnerships between ibrarians and facuty, embedding ibrarians in academic units (Oivares, 2010), and providing onine instruction (McMien and Fabbi, 2010; York and Vance, 2009) wi aow ibrarians to continue to pay an important roe in information iteracy. As suggested by Travis, in order to achieve integration of information iteracy into the university curricuum, ibrarians and facuty need to investigate theories of change. He examined the change agency theory as a too and a process for integrating information iteracy into the genera education curricuum (Travis, 2008). The major obstaces for ibrarians to overcome in preserving their dominant roe on the information iteracy front woud be facuty attitudes, ack of subject expertise, ack of technica skis, and a constanty changing dynamic environment that requires reskiing and ifeong earning (Brewerton, 2012). Librarians need to prove that their contribution to education is vauabe. The number of instruction sessions is not a reaistic measure of student earning, and ibrarians are sti strugging to find a better way for assessing the impact of their efforts. By demonstrating improvement in student earning as a direct resut from their instruction, ibrarians woud be better abe to justify their instructiona programs. 6.2 The many faces of information iteracy The ack of consensus on how to define information iteracy is at the root of the probems confronting ibrarians. Discipine and organizationa cutures pay a roe in how information iteracy is understood and vaued (Saunders, 2009). In the future, teaching how to search and access information, which is the currenty predominant mode for ibrary instruction, wi become ess important. If information iteracy is to survive as a concept, it woud need to incude areas that unti now either have not been supported by ibrarians or are the resut of recent deveopments

103 Science information iteracy and the roe of academic ibrarians 45 in technoogy, research, and scientific pubishing. Moving away from teaching information retrieva skis in favor of providing training on managing scientific information and research data wi be a great opportunity for ibrarians to continue to be important payers in the fied of information iteracy. Incorporating data iteracy, bibiographic management, scientific writing, and ethics of scientific communication under the umbrea of information iteracy wi aow ibrarians to find new important roes in supporting education and research in their organizations. The next sections of this chapter show how bibiographic management programs were successfuy integrated in information iteracy programs. The different formats (faceto-face sessions and onine tutorias) and toos (LibGuides and SurveyMonkey) were used to make the teaching of information iteracy and assessment of student earning more efficient. 6.3 Managing citations Bibiographic management toos have been widey used by researchers and students to import, store, organize, and manage references that they can ater use when writing research papers, theses, dissertations, journa artices, and other pubications. As shown in the next sections, incorporating them into information iteracy casses was very beneficia to students What bibiographic management programs aow us to do Easy storage of references found onine Discovery of new artices and resources Automated artice recommendations Sharing of references with peers Finding out who s reading what you re reading Storing and searching of PDFs Capturing references Inserting citations from an individua s ibrary into a paper Viewing from anywhere Viewing saved references, aong with the PDFs, on web, desktop, and mobie appications Taking notes and annotating artices in your ibrary Automatic extraction of metadata from PDF papers Back-up and synchronization across mutipe computers and with an onine account PDF viewer with sticky notes, text highighting, and fu-screen reading Fu-text search across papers Smart fitering, tagging, and automatic PDF fie renaming Shared groups to coaborativey tag and annotate research papers Pubic groups to share reading ists Socia networking features Usage-based readership statistics about papers, authors, and pubications Smartphone apps Inserting citations from your ibrary in a document you are writing

104 46 Managing Scientific Information and Research Data Most popuar bibiographic management programs The number of reference management toos is growing, and in order for users to decide which too is best for them, they need to take into consideration many factors. Many websites and artices provide technica specifications and comparisons for these programs that hep users choose the best too for their specific needs (Duarte- Garcia, 2007; Fenner et a., 2014; McKinney, 2013; Zhang, 2012). Sometimes, one too can be used for one purpose and another one for a different purpose. Quite often, choosing a bibiographic management too is often a matter of persona preference. Some of the most popuar bibiographic management programs are isted beow: CiteULike ( Cowiz ( EndNote Onine ( EndNote Desktop ( Mendeey ( Papers ( ReadCube ( RefWorks ( Zotero ( EndNote, Mendeey, and Zotero are the most widey used bibiographic management programs in academic institutions, and they are discussed in more detai beow EndNote (Thomson Reuters) EndNote Desktop is a commercia reference management software package used to manage bibiographies and references when writing artices, books, theses, and other documents. EndNote Onine (previousy, EndNote Web) is a free web version of EndNote (Duarte-Garcia, 2007; McKinney, 2013; Thomson Reuters, 2014; Zhang, 2012). Users can synchronize their EndNote Onine account with the desktop version Mendeey (Esevier, Inc.) Mendeey is a desktop and web program for managing and sharing research papers, discovering research data, and coaborating onine (Habib, 2014; Haustein, 2014; Zhang, 2012). It combines Mendeey Desktop, a PDF and reference management appication (avaiabe for Windows, Mac, and Linux), with Mendeey Web, an onine network for researchers. Mendeey requires the user to store a data on its servers. Upon registration, Mendeey provides the user with 1000 MB of free space, which is upgradeabe at a cost.

105 Science information iteracy and the roe of academic ibrarians Zotero Zotero is free, open-source software for managing bibiographic data and reated research materias (e.g. PDFs). Its features incude web browser integration (with Firefox), onine syncing, and citing whie writing. Zotero Standaone aows Zotero to be run as an independent program outside Firefox. You can add everything to Zotero PDFs, images, videos, and snapshots of web pages Choosing a bibiographic management program Whie it is important to know each too s strengths and weaknesses, this is not the ony consideration that shoud infuence your decision. There are many websites and artices comparing the functionaities of these toos (Fenner et a., 2014; Wikipedia, 2014; Zhang, 2012), but many of these comparisons ook ike the technica specifications for software or hardware that you can see when ooking for a digita camera or another eectronic product. For those who use Web of Science or PubMed most of the time, EndNote is probaby the best too. It is made by Thomson Reuters, which aso pubishes Web of Science and is optimized to work with it. EndNote provides the greatest number of citation styes (more than 5000), but this coud be an advantage over the other bibiographic management toos ony if you need access to many different citation styes. EndNote or Mendeey wi be better options than Zotero when using other browsers than Firefox, because Zotero works best as a Firefox extension. Those who want to use EndNote Desktop have to purchase the software and insta it on their computers. Mendeey is designed to be an academic networking too as we as a patformindependent citation management too that syncs your data across a your computers. It woud be the best choice if sharing with a network of peope and finding out what citations other peope are compiing in their ibraries is important to you. Students tend to prefer programs that ook ike the socia media sites they are using, and the creators of bibiographic management toos are istening, adapting to the needs and preferences of these new users. Mendeey s more modern interface emuates the experience they have with other socia networking sites. The more innovative feature of Mendeey, which distinguishes it from other bibiographic management programs, is that it aggregates and dispays a users citations so that users can search or browse across the entire set of citations to find resources reated to their research and then add them to their own citation ibrary for further customization. Athough Mendeey maintains users privacy, this feature may cause concerns among researchers invoved in competitive areas of science who do not ike their information-gathering habits to be monitored by a company. Zotero and Mendeey aow the capture of a screenshot of a web page as we as other data about it. Syncing citations to an onine Zotero account is easier and works more smoothy than syncing EndNote Desktop with EndNote Onine. Zotero s capture function works with more resources (databases, cataogs, and websites) than the import function of Mendeey or the capture feature of EndNote. Users can aso import citations from sites such as Amazon and Fickr. Zotero makes it easy to create tags and write notes assigned to citations.

106 48 Managing Scientific Information and Research Data Very often, peope choose a particuar bibiographic management too because they find it easy to use. As discussed in an artice, there are aso generationa preferences with regard to which programs peope are choosing (Hu et a., 2008). 6.4 Designing information iteracy instruction The introduction of LibGuides by Springshare ( in the ast few years has aowed ibraries to promote their information resources in a new way using mutimedia and socia networking toos. LibGuides are much more fexibe to use than web pages controed by rigid rues and other externa (institutiona) factors. For the ast severa years, I have been using LibGuides in teaching scientific information and bibiographic management toos (Baykoucheva, 2011). For every course in which I taught such casses, I prepared a page in a LibGuide ( in which individua course pages were isted under a tab caed Course materias. Such pages were used by students to access a resources taught in cass. The assignment for the cass (SurveyMonkey was used for this), a detaied handout providing essentia detais about search strategies, and other cass-reated information were aso posted on the LibGuide page. Integrating bibiographic management programs in science iteracy casses aows students to earn how to do two important things: (1) perform iterature and chemica property searches efficienty and (2) use a bibiographic management program to store references and cite them whie writing. Casses were hed in undergraduate and graduate courses in chemistry, biochemistry, moecuar bioogy, and nutrition, as we as in a Professiona Writing Program and in severa honors programs. Figure 6.1 shows a LibGuide page ( created for a arge chemistry course (CHEM272) for nonmajors with 454 students, divided into 22 sections. Teaching assistants (TAs) were trained to teach the instruction sessions for each section and grade the onine assignments that students had to compete. In one hour, in addition to earning how to search iterature databases, students aso acquired basic knowedge of how to import references from databases into EndNote and insert citations (Cite Whie You Write) from their EndNote ibraries into documents they were writing. Besides earning how to find and fiter iterature, students expored severa chemistry property databases, drew moecuar structures, searched for chemica compounds that corresponded to these structures, and found chemica properties and reactions for these compounds. EndNote was used in these casses ony as an exampe of a bibiographic management program. Once they have earned how such a program works, students can decide whether to use it or choose another too. Zotero, Mendeey, and other new toos are free and easy to use. 6.5 How do we know we are heping students earn? Each student had to compete an onine assignment in SurveyMonkey. The assignment was graded and the grade was part of the overa grade of the student for the course. A students submitted their assignments and were very successfu in answering the questions. It was very important that attendance and assignment were mandatory, which made the information

107 Science information iteracy and the roe of academic ibrarians 49 Figure 6.1 A page in a LibGuide used for teaching information iteracy in an undergraduate chemistry course. The 456 students enroed in the course were divided into 22 sections. The grades were part of the overa grade of the students for the course. iteracy cass part of the whoe course. As many students have acknowedged, the assignment enforced what they had earned in cass and enabed them to practice with the resources and the bibiographic management program on their own. The fact that the assignment was graded and that the grade was part of their overa grade for the course was very important, as this motivated students to do it and do it as we as they coud. This has substantiay increased the significance of the ibrary instruction in the eyes of both students and facuty. Now, a instructors with whom I have coaborated in incorporating information iteracy casses in their courses aways ask me to incude an assignment and to cover EndNote. One of the questions in the assignment required students to rank five of the resources taught in cass (#1 being the most usefu one). These resources were EndNote, PubMed, Reaxys, SciFinder, and Web of Science. As Figure 6.2 shows, 142 students (31%) have ranked EndNote as the most usefu resource; Reaxys was ranked as the most usefu resource by 163 students (36%). These resuts show that students reaized that a bibiographic management program is very usefu to them. After the successfu experiment with this 200-eve course, we are ooking into roing out a simiar information-iteracy cass in a freshman chemistry course with 800 students.

108 50 Managing Scientific Information and Research Data EndNote PubMed Reaxys #1 #2 #3 SciFinder Web of Science Figure 6.2 Ranking of resources by students in an undergraduate chemistry course. Students were asked to rank the three resources they had found most usefu from the foowing ones that were taught in cass: EndNote Web, PubMed, Reaxys, SciFinder, and Web of Science. EndNote was ranked as the most usefu resource by 142 students (31%). The resource that was found most usefu by the majority of students was Reaxys, with 163 students (36%) giving it this ranking. There were 456 students in the course, divided into 22 sections. Students in a graduate chemistry course had to answer a simiar question in their assignment. As Figure 6.3 shows, there were some differences in the preferences of students. Whie EndNote had simiar ranking (33% of students seected it as the most usefu resource), the scientific database that graduate students ranked as the most usefu one was SciFinder, with 38% of students giving it this ranking. The students in the undergraduate course chose Reaxys as the most usefu resource. It is difficut to expain these differences, but it woud be interesting to expore the reasons for them. It coud be that the students have made these choices based on their immediate needs (e.g. other course assignments and what materia their course was covering). It was interesting, though, to see how students perceived what they were taught and see them try to figure out which resources woud benefit them most. It was not a surprise that students in a chemistry course ranked the chemistry databases SciFinder and Reaxys as the most important ones. What is reay interesting is that they gave a bibiographic management program such a high ranking. This proves that bibiographic management shoud be an important component of information iteracy and that students need to be exposed to these toos as eary as possibe What usage statistics te us The statistics provided by the LibGuide mentioned above show that the peaks in its usage coincided with the casses and assignments. As shown in Figure 6.4, the LibGuide was accessed 19,118 times in the year The two peaks of use (in Apri and September) coincided with casses that were taught in a arge chemistry course (CHEM272) with 456 students, who had to access a resources through the

109 9 8 7 Number of students #1 #2 #3 EndNote PubMed Reaxys SciFinder Web of Science Figure 6.3 Ranking of resources by students in a graduate chemistry course (October 2014). EndNote was ranked as the #1 (most usefu) resource by 33% of students and was second ony to SciFinder in this respect. Figure 6.4 Usage data for a LibGuide ( used by the author to teach scientific information and bibiographic management in chemistry and other courses at the University of Maryand Coege Park. As shown in the graph, the LibGuide was accessed 5546 times during the month of September 2014.

110 52 Managing Scientific Information and Research Data LibGuide. Particuary remarkabe are the resuts for the month of September, when the LibGuide was used 5674 times. In the course of 12 months (from June 2013 to May 2014), the highest usage of the same LibGuide happened in October 2013 and Apri 2014 (Figure 6.5), which aso coincided with casses and assignments. When the LibGuide stats were compared with the usage stats for SciFinder (Figure 6.6), Figure 6.5 Usage statistics for a LibGuide used in teaching scientific information and bibiographic management in courses at the University of Maryand Coege Park during the period from June 1, 2013, to May 31, SciFinder usage counts Jun 13 Ju 13 Aug 13 Sept 13 Oct 13 Nov 13 Dec 13 Jan 14 Feb 14 Mar 14 Apr 14 May 14 Figure 6.6 The peaks in SciFinder usage in October 2013 and Apri 2014 for the University of Maryand Coege Park coincided with the highest peaks in the access to a LibGuide used for teaching.