1.2b. Equality in education

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1 (iii) Literacy programmes and adult education In the past, insufficient, inadequate or inaccessible educational programmes led to a significant sector of the Omani population remaining illiterate or undereducated. Reaffirming the goal to achieve a fully literate population in a more rapid manner, the Ministry of Education set up a national committee in 1998 and developed a national plan with the goal to eradicate illiteracy among 108,000 male and female citizens aged between 15 and 44 within the years of the sixth and seventh development plans (2001/2005 and 2006/2010 respectively). The literacy programmes take learners to the equivalent level of grade 4 in the subjects of Arabic Language, Islamic Studies and Mathematics. Data on literacy programmes and adult education are included in Section 2.2 of this report. 1.2b. Equality in education As mentioned earlier, when His Majesty Sultan Qaboos came to the throne in 1970 there were only three schools in the whole of Oman. These schools accommodated 900 boys up to elementary level only. His Majesty the Sultan directed that education would be provided for all without any gender discrimination or any other consideration. There were two main areas to be tackled in this challenge to achieve equity in education. The first was to ensure that girls as well as boys received equal access to school enrolment. The second was that children living in the most remote rural areas of the country should not only have the opportunity to attend schools, but that the education they were offered should be of equal quality to that received by children living in urban areas. (i) Gender equality The three schools that existed in the country in 1970 did not offer any places for girls. Following His Majesty's directives, however, the provision of equal opportunities for girls quickly became one of the most important principles of Oman's educational renaissance. It was recognised that the successful implementation of this principle would bring great benefits to the country. For one thing, women make up half of the population and to allow them the opportunity to enter into professional life would provide a considerable impetus 21

2 to the future economic development of the country. For another, women play a crucial role in the building of families so an educated female population would help to provide a positive stimulus to the cultural, social and intellectual development of the country's future generations. By the end of 1970, there were 1,136 girls receiving education, all at elementary level. By the end of 1974, girls were enrolled at all three levels - elementary, preparatory and secondary. By 2003, the number of female students attending school totalled nearly 280,000. The efforts made by the Sultanate to close the gender gap was recognised in the United Nations Children's Fund's report, "The State of the World's Children", published in The report commented that the country is clearly seeing the benefits of its policy of and investment in providing universal access and free basic education to both boys and girls. (ii) Countrywide Efforts to develop a public education system that would reach all parts of the country began in Initially, a number of short-term measures had to be taken in order to achieve this objective. For example, schools were opened in tents, rented buildings and other non-purpose built facilities, and a "double-shift" system was established in schools thereby enabling some students to attend school in the morning while others received their education in the same building in the afternoon. Over the last thirty years these temporary solutions have been systematically tackled by the Ministry of Education. New purpose-built schools have been constructed and existing buildings have been extended to allow them to accommodate all students at the same time (see section 1.2a). The commitment of the Ministry to ensure that students throughout the country should receive equal opportunities to a quality education was underlined when it decided to phase-in its reform programmes. The phasing-in of the Basic Education programme involved all regions in the country (see Table 1 in Appendix 2). Also, when the revised assessment arrangements developed under the Examinations Reform Project were piloted in 82 schools, these schools were selected from every region in the country and included an equal number of boys' and girls' schools (see Table 2 in Appendix 2). 22

3 1.2c. Quality (particularly in terms of relevance) of education A number of important steps have been taken by the Ministry of Education in efforts to increase the quality of its education system. These steps have included implementing reforms to the curriculum and to teaching and learning methods, providing schools with improved resources, introducing measures to improve school performance and providing staff with appropriate professional development opportunities. This section will deal with the first three of these steps and professional development will be taken up in section 2.4. (i) Curriculum and teaching and learning methods The Ministry of Education was aware that if it was to adequately prepare Omani students to be effective participants in the rapidly changing world of the 21st century, it would need to introduce both new curricula and teaching and learning methods. As a result, the major trends in the curriculum development process carried out by the Ministry have involved matters relating to both "what to learn" and "how to learn". The new teaching and learning methods being employed in schools are described in section 1.1c, while attempts to improve the relevancy of the curriculum are detailed in section 1.2d. (ii) Provision of resources One of the major recent trends in Omani curricula has been the introduction of resource-based learning. This philosophy stresses a shift from the use of a single resource in the classroom, i.e. the textbook, to the use of a wide variety of print and non-print resources. The aim is to encourage students to learn how to use a variety of technologies, demonstrate an understanding of technological applications and apply appropriate technologies to solve different problems. All subject areas now have a range of teaching aids and students are able to get hands-on experience in the classroom with real equipment. For example, in science students work individually and in groups to carry out experiments. Moreover, traditional book-based libraries have been replaced by learning resource centres in all Basic Education schools. These centres are equipped with fifteen computers and a range of audio visual aids and print materials. In the Basic Education second cycle schools (i.e. grade 5 upwards), a separate computer laboratory containing twenty additional computers has also been provided. 23

4 The Ministry of Education's approach to the implementation of information technology in its schools has been to integrate the use of computers into topics studied in subject areas such as Islamic studies, Arabic Language, Social Subjects, English, Mathematics and Science. In the second cycle schools, students are scheduled into the computer laboratory for lessons on information technology, but are not timetabled into the learning resource centre, thus allowing subject teachers the opportunity to plan class visits to this facility. It is believed that using computers within contexts in which students are familiar will better facilitate meaningful learning to take place. As well as using computers in the learning resource centre, students in some schools are able to use computers directly in their subject classrooms. In a pilot study, three laptop computers have been placed in each of the Islamic Studies, Arabic Language, Social Subjects, English, Mathematics and Science classrooms. Working individually or in small groups, students use the computers in the classroom to enrich the learning activities of the particular subject. If this pilot study is successful, it is intended to expand this development to other schools. (iii) School improvement As part of the overall reform process, the Ministry is trying to encourage a shift in the culture of its schools. The aim is for schools to work towards the continuous improvement of the whole school. The Ministry wants schools to be self-critical: identifying their strengths and areas for development and taking responsibility for their development. With these objectives in mind, the Ministry has introduced the School Performance Evaluation Project. The aim of this project is to establish national criteria and to introduce a comprehensive system of school self-evaluation which is complemented by an occasional thorough external evaluation. A pilot began in 2002/2003 with the involvement of sixteen government schools and one private school representing four of the country's eleven regions. Regional supervisors received training from trained Ministry School Performance Evaluation staff and were supported in introducing self-evaluation techniques and tools to pilot schools. In 2003/2004 this number grew to 95 schools covering all eleven regions and it is intended to phase-in the new arrangements to all schools over a seven-year period. In their first year of implementing the new model, schools are concerned only with developing self-evaluation procedures. To prepare them for this, 24

5 headmasters and headmistresses, senior teachers and teachers received training dealing with a range of skills, tools and strategies for effective school selfevaluation. Technical and administrative supervisors were also trained so that they could provide appropriate support to the schools. In the second year of implementation, a system of external evaluation will be introduced. In each region, a trained team consisting of approximately 8-12 supervisors (except where the school has few students) has been assigned to the task of carrying out external evaluation. 1.2d. Content of education (major trends and challenges for curriculum development processes) The Ministry believed that skills and competencies in certain of the existing subjects would be of particular value to students and that, as a result, the teaching of them required to be strengthened. Thus, in Basic Education schools more focus and an increased period allocation have been given to the teaching of Mathematics and Science. Also, English Language has been introduced as a subject from grade 1 in these schools rather than from grade 4 as is the case in the General Education system. Moreover, the guiding principle behind the development of the Basic Education curriculum has been to ensure that it is relevant to the present and future needs of students. This has been achieved in two ways. Completely new subject areas have been developed. For example, all students in Basic Education schools now study the new subjects of information technology and environmental life skills. Although it will always be important for students to acquire factual knowledge, the body of knowledge in most subject areas is changing rapidly. Consequently, rather than merely remembering information, it is now more important for students to be able to find and use the information. The aim of the revision of the curricular materials, therefore, has been to move away from content which is overloaded with theory and abstract concepts. Instead, the materials have been developed to provide students with opportunities for experiential learning and are rooted in practical and real-life contexts and applications. The emphasis is on the acquisition of transferable skills. 25

6 In order to recognise the needs of all students, high achievers as well as low achievers, the production of differentiated teaching and learning materials has been encouraged. The Ministry's desire to meet the needs of all students is also reflected in the recent establishment of special cases committees in schools. One of the important tasks of these committees is to identify students who are facing difficulties with their school work, to plan individual programmes for these students and to monitor the progress of students throughout the year. The Ministry is also encouraging schools to devise individual programme plans for high achieving students. In an attempt to make students' educational experience more relevant and meaningful, the Ministry has also encouraged and supported moves towards the establishment of closer cross-curricular links. For example, topics and themes have been developed in social subjects and science which allow teachers to introduce concepts and ideas from two or more subject disciplines. In Oman, however, one of the most important aims of Basic Education was to improve teaching and learning in Science, Mathematics and English and, as a result, it was decided that specialist teachers were required in these subjects. Nevertheless, the Ministry of Education was also keen to encourage crosscurricular continuity in student learning. Consequently, in the Basic Education cycle one schools, the number of teachers a class of students sees has been limited; for example, one teacher is responsible for teaching both Mathematics and Science to the class, another teacher is responsible for Arabic, Islamic Studies and Social Studies and a third teacher is responsible for English. One further example of the Ministry s commitment towards integration can be seen from its approach to the implementation of information technology in its schools (see section 1.2c). Assessment and evaluation cannot be separated from curriculum matters. Without effective assessment and evaluation it is impossible to know whether students have learned, whether teaching has been effective, or how best to address student learning needs. Moreover, the aims of assessment and evaluation should allow students to seek out assistance to help them address their weaknesses, gain confidence from their strengths, and provide them with opportunities for further challenges and demands. 26

7 To help achieve these aims, there has also been a move away from the expectation that students should merely rote learn and memorise information. Instead, an increased emphasis has been placed on the testing of higher thinking skills. A wider range of assessment instruments have now been introduced, with continuous classroom assessment being given added prominence in the assessment and evaluation system. Arising out of ordinary classroom activities, teachers are now expected to use a variety of continuous assessment instruments such as short written or oral tests, quizzes, performance assessment tasks, projects and student self-assessments. The phasing arrangements for Basic Education mean that for a considerable number of years, the majority of students in Oman will continue to be studying under the General Education rather than the Basic Education system. In response to the needs of the majority of the country's students and teachers, therefore, the Ministry has taken steps to introduce a number of reforms into the General Education system. The following are some examples of recent reforms. A phasing-in programme for the development of textbooks and teacher guides for all subjects in the system is presently being implemented. In General Education grade 1 subjects, students will begin to use the Basic Education books in September Thereafter, it is intended to add another grade to this initiative every year. Assessment reforms have been introduced in to grades For example, an increased emphasis has been given to the testing of higher order thinking skills rather than factual recall, and to the use of continuous classroom assessment rather than an all-inclusive final examination. These curricular and assessment reforms have been introduced in an attempt both to improve the General Education system, and to remove confusion by bringing it closer to the system operating in the Basic Education schools. See section 2.3 for a description of recent reforms made to the grades 11 and 12 General Education system. One of the major challenges in curricular development is to ensure that the reforms show a consistency across all subjects. To help achieve this, the Ministry of Education has introduced a committee structure for curriculum development. For example, review committees for the production of textbooks have been 27

8 established in each subject area. The remit of these committees, which usually contain supervisor, teacher, curriculum and assessment personnel, is to ensure that the materials produced by the writers are consistent with aims of Ministry policy. Moreover, an overall co-ordinating committee has also been established to look at the development of the curriculum across all subjects in order to ensure that the content and skills included follow a logical progression. 1.2e. Policy dialogue, partnerships and participation by civil society in the process of educational change The Ministry's model for managing reform stressed that it was vitally important for it to cooperate closely with, and try to win the support of, all the major stakeholders involved in the reform process. These stakeholders include students, parents, teachers, school headmasters and headmistresses, supervisors, policy-makers (both centrally and in the regions), employers, further education and the universities. Cooperation between the Ministry and the stakeholders, involves a two-way communication process. It involves both the passing down of information about the reform process from the Ministry to the stakeholders and also the passing up of advice from the stakeholders to the Ministry. With regard to the passing down of information, the stakeholders need to know, for example, about the type of reforms that are being introduced, why the changes are being brought in and how the reforms are to be carried out. To help achieve this, the Ministry has concentrated efforts on two major areas. Firstly, it has initiated a major publicity and information campaign on the reform process. This has included the issuing of newsletters and the production of television and radio programmes and articles for newspapers on various aspects of the reforms. Secondly, it has issued a number of guidance and information documents to schools and parents on various aspects of the reform process. One of the major benefits of phasing-in the reforms gradually is that it has allowed important lessons to be learned from the stakeholders and for improvements to be made before full implementation is carried out. The Ministry has attempted to facilitate the two-way communication process between itself and the stakeholders in a number of ways. 28

9 Teachers and supervisors have been encouraged to submit their ideas to specially set-up regional committees. These committees issue regular reports to the Ministry describing the ideas and developments from their region, the advantages of applying them nationally and any obstacles that would need to be overcome. The views of parents are heard through parent-teacher associations which have been formed at school, local, regional and national levels. The Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Higher Education are in regular contact on matters of joint concern. For example, following a request from the Ministry of Higher Education, the Ministry of Education provided information on the reform process in its schools to the teaching staff of the Faculties of Education in the colleges. Cooperation such as this assists the Teachers' Training Colleges to deliver a more appropriate pre-service teacher training programme and benefits the Ministry of Education by better preparing its future teachers. Regular meetings are also held with representatives from Sultan Qaboos University and a number of research projects have resulted from these meetings. For example, in the 2002/2003 academic year an evaluation of the programme leading to a diploma in school administration was carried out. The Ministry of Education organised a conference in April 2003 on the theme of forming partnerships with the business sector. Since then, a number of initiatives have developed. For example, the Muscat Securities Market recently organised a series of very successful workshops with students and future workshops with Economics and Administrative Science teachers are in the planning stage. Representatives from all the major stakeholders were invited to attend regional and national conferences organised by the Ministry, and an international conference organised jointly by the Ministry and UNESCO, on the future direction of secondary education in Oman. The conferences allowed the Ministry to explain its reasons for embarking on reform and its plans for carrying them out. They also enabled the views of the stakeholders to be expressed and this played an important contribution in assisting the deliberations of the Ministry. 29

10 1.3 The main problems and challenges facing the education system at the beginning of twenty-first century in Oman The main problems and challenges facing the education system can be summarised as follows: (i) Population structure The preliminary results of the Sultanate's 2003 census have indicated that the population of the Sultanate of Oman now totals more than million. This figure is comprised of 1,779,318 Omanis and 552,073 expatriates. The Population Growth Rate (PGR) for the Omani population recorded 18.4 per one thousand persons (i.e. 1.84%). In other words, each one thousand Omani individuals have increased by 18.4 per year. As an important service Ministry, the increase in the population from 2,018 million in 1993 (of which 78.7% were Omani) to 2, 331 million in 2003 (of which 76.3% were Omani) provides a challenge for the Ministry of Education. New schools will need to be opened which makes an increase in the Ministry's budget crucial. (ii) Remote areas Oman, with a total land area of 309,500 is the third largest country in Arabia. Oman's geography is a varied one and the needs of its people vary from one place to another. The Ministry of Education's responsibility to provide access to education to all who want it is not, therefore, always easy to achieve. For example, the Bedouin population live in the desert and mountains and tend to move from one place to another in small groups. To improve educational access to groups such as these, the Ministry's policy has been to open schools in these remote areas even when the number of students is less than 20. Moreover, the Ministry takes every effort to ensure that the facilities available in schools in remote areas are of the same standard as those in the capital city. (iii) Finance Providing educational access for a growing and structurally young population presents a financial challenge for two main reasons. The first involves the costs related to the building of high quality schools with up-to-date facilities; the school 30

11 building costs were approximately 430 thousand Omani Rials ($1,117 million) for Basic Education cycle one and 460 thousand Omani Rials ($1,195 million) for cycle two. Secondly, the increase in the number of schools has resulted in the need to employ more teachers and other related support staff. The total number of teachers employed by the Ministry has grown from 5,150 in 1980 to 32,345 in Moreover, the decision to carry out a major reform of the educational system has produced another financial challenge to the Ministry. Developing a new curriculum and improving the existing one, providing a range of resources in schools and delivering appropriate training for staff are all essential elements in the Ministry's reform plans. All, however, have substantial financial implications. For example, all Basic Education cycle one and two schools have been provided with a learning resource centre, each of which costs approximately 25 thousand Omani Rials ($65,000). In addition, cycle two schools have been provided with a computer laboratory, which takes the cost in these schools up to 30 thousand Rials ($78,000). These figures do not take into account the on-going costs involved in maintaining and operating the technology systems. With 196 Basic Education cycle one and 156 cycle two schools in the school year , this amounted to a substantial investment. (iv) Partnership with the private education sector To encourage the private sector's involvement, the government has provided a number of incentives such as offering building land free of charge, issuing private schools with cut-priced books, supervising and training private school's teachers freely and reducing the fees for opening new private schools. It should be added, however, that the Ministry of Education's role in the supervision and administration of the private schools has played a significant part in ensuring that quality assurance is upheld and that regulations as laid down by the Ministry of Education are followed. Partly as a result of these measures, the number of private schools grew from 106 schools in 1996/1997 to 132 schools in 2002/2003, of which 25 are preparatory and 10 secondary schools. A total of 23,553 students were enrolled in private schools in 2003/2004. Providing opportunities for the private sector to expand its role in education is considered to be one of the major challenges facing the government. 31

12 (v) Phasing-in arrangements When an education system is in the process of being reformed, it is to be expected that differences, at least in the short-term, will arise in the assessing, evaluating and reporting procedures and arrangements across the system. This is likely to be especially the case when the new reforms are being phased-in gradually into the system as is the situation with Basic Education. The advantage of a gradualist phasing-in approach is that it allows the opportunity for important lessons to be learnt and for amendments to take place before full implementation is carried out. The reforms introduced by Basic Education, for example, have been able to be fine-tuned and improved over the last four years as a result of feedback received from schools in the early phasingin stage. However, the Ministry recognises that a major disadvantage of these approaches is that at the same time as some students are being introduced to a new system, other students are continuing to use the old system. These systems have a different curriculum and use different teaching methods and evaluation and assessment approaches. As a result, there is an increased potential for confusion among teachers, students and parents. Particular difficulties are likely to arise when a single school operates more than one system, or when parents have children in more than one system or when students move from one system to another. As mentioned in section 1.2d, the Ministry of Education has taken many steps to help overcome this problem. For example, the assessment system in General Education has been reformed to bring it into-line with Basic Education. Moreover, Basic Education books are being phased-into General Education. Training General Education teachers about the methods and the techniques used in Basic Education has also been carried out. (vi) Developing reform As mentioned in sections 1.1c and 1.2c, the Ministry of Education is currently carrying out a widespread reform of its education system. This includes reform of the curricular, teaching and learning approaches, assessment and evaluation systems at all grade levels. It also involves performance evaluation at the school level. Ensuring that all of these reforms are carried forward in the agreed 32

13 timescale will, therefore, present a major challenge for the Ministry in the coming years. When Oman presented its last report to UNESCO in 2001, the new Basic Education system had reached up to grade 4 only. Now it has reached grade 8, so in the intervening years teaching and learning materials have been developed in all subjects for grades 5-8. Over the next two years, materials for the final two Basic Education grade levels (9-10) will have to be developed. Moreover, the Ministry is at present planning to implement a new grades 11 and 12 programme. This programme will build on the principles developed for Basic Education and will follow an essential skills model, whereby all students will be expected to acquire and develop a set of key skills, or fundamental competencies, which will enable them to operate effectively in a wide range of contexts. It is essential that all the materials in all the subjects included in this programme should be developed in time for the first students to complete their Basic Education programme at the end of the 2006/2007 academic year. Along with the preparation of the teaching and learning materials, the Ministry will also have to provide appropriate in-service training programmes for all staff who will be involved in the reforms. It will also proceed with its programme to provide opportunities for its teachers to upgrade their qualifications. (vii) Winning support for the reforms While it is relatively easy to devise educational reform innovations, it is much more difficult to win the hearts and minds of all the people who will be touched by the reforms. The Ministry is aware that many people find change difficult to cope with. It is quite natural for people to want to continue with the systems and procedures that they are familiar with. When change takes place, they can often feel confused and threatened by the process. If these feelings are allowed to persist, the success of the reforms is likely to be seriously compromised. The Ministry is aware, therefore, that it has to win the support of all the key stakeholders - see section 1.2e. (viii) Career education and guidance Another challenge facing the Ministry of Education is to provide career education and guidance in grades 11 and 12 and in Basic Education cycle two. Trained 33

14 career education and guidance staff will be employed in schools to carry out six main functions. Firstly, to help students to identify their abilities, needs and attitudes; secondly, to provide students with advanced communication skills; thirdly, to help students to recognise their educational rights and responsibilities; fourthly, to help students build positive attitudes towards learning; fifthly, to assist learners in their understanding of employment market and further learning opportunities; sixthly, to advise learners in choosing future career paths which suit their interests and abilities. (ix) Students with special needs As mentioned in section 1.2a, separate provision is made available for a number of students with special needs. The Ministry of Education's policy, however, is that students with learning difficulties should, wherever possible, be included in normal classes. It is appreciated that before implementing this policy, however, teachers will require considerable training and support on how to deal with such students in the classroom. The Ministry of Education has, therefore, arranged for consultants to study the issue and submit a programme on how to prepare teaching aids to support students with learning difficulties. Students who are gifted and talented can also be considered to have special needs. The Ministry is aware that it has, as yet, inappropriate tools to recognise who are the gifted and talented students and how to encourage their further development. The Ministry is, therefore, currently focusing the attention of teacher training on this issue. Another strategy has been to encourage activities groups to be formed in schools. The involvement of students in groups covering topics such as health, broadcasting and information can encourage them to channel and develop their special talents. (x) Educational research Shortage in specialised educational research is a major problem which faces many countries around the world. The Ministry of Education in Oman has tried to alleviate this problem through a number of initiatives. Responsibility for educational research has been given to two new departments in the Ministry: the Technical Office for Studies and Development (TOSD) and the Human Resource Development Department (HRDD). In addition to that, educational researchers of other departments of the Ministry carry out their own 34

15 researches. Supervisors, teachers and other concerned persons do research works as well. The Ministry encourages doing educational researches as it is aware of the importance of these researches in identifying the educational status in the country and in developing and enriching the educational process. TOSD has been assigned educational research as one of its main responsibilities and it promotes this in a number of ways. TOSD is carrying out this task either by its own staff or in cooperation with foreign expertise. Among the duties of the Human Resource Development Department (HRDD) is to study the Ministry's needs for different training programmes and to provide training for teachers and other Ministry staff. HRDD s in-service training programmes and its promotion of the idea of involving staff in "reflective practice" and collaborative action by encouraging schools to become learning organisations are elaborated upon in detail in section 2.4. With reference to the encouragement of the Ministry to educational researches, the Ministerial Decree No. 162/2003 was issued with regard to a contest titled (Contest of Omani educators and teachers). This contest aims at encouraging Omani educators and teachers to carry out researches that serve the development of the educational process and enrich the educational thoughts in the Omani society. 35

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17 Quality education for all young people; challenges, trends and priorities

18 Section 2: Quality education for all young people; challenges, trends and priorities 2.1 Education and gender equality From the outset of the Omani renaissance in 1970, the principle of gender equality received special attention in the directives and decrees of His Majesty the Sultan. The Basic Statute of the State enshrined this principle in the following ways: "Justice, equality and equality of opportunity for Omanis are the pillars of society and are guaranteed by the State" (Article 12) "All citizens are equal before the law and share the same public rights and duties. There is no discrimination between them on the grounds of gender " (Article 17) Consequently, the provision of equal opportunities for girls became one of the most important principles of Oman's educational renaissance. As can be seen from table 3 below, nearly 580,000 students attended schools in the academic year 2003/2004, of whom over 48% were girls. Table 2: Enrolment of boys and girls for the school year Basic Education Cycle 1 (grades 1-4) Basic Education Cycle 2 (grades 5-7) General Education (grades 1-6) General Education (grades 7-9) General Education (grades 10-12) Total Number Boys Girls 51,524 48,928 19,695 18,935 81,931 78,036 79,362 69,675 64,780 63,606 Percentage Boys Girls Totals 297, ,

19 The Ministry of Education is committed to the principle of providing equal opportunities for all. In all Basic Education Cycle One schools (i.e. grades 1-4), the classes are co-educational. The general regulations in all schools, however, apply equally to both boys and girls. Moreover, the courses developed by the Ministry and the materials issued to the schools, are identical for both boys and girls. The Ministry has in recent years introduced some special measures to promote gender equality. For example: Previously, the subject "Domestic Economics" was studied by girls only, while the subject "Vocational Training" was studied by boys only. The Ministry decided that these subjects should not be included in the Basic Education curriculum. Instead, it introduced the subject "Life Skills", which includes topics on, e.g. cooking and vocational training. Life Skills is a mandatory course for both girls and boys. In all subjects, committees have been formed to check over the textbooks and other teaching and learning materials being prepared for issue to the schools. One of the important tasks for these committees is to ensure that stereotyping gender roles is avoided. 2.2 Education and Social Inclusion The Omani population includes several vulnerable groups that present numerous challenges for the Ministry of Education in meeting their educational needs. Groups most vulnerable to various forms of social exclusion in Oman include those living in remote and inaccessible areas, mobile populations such as the Bedouin, groups for whom Arabic is a second language, the physically and mentally handicapped (many of whom have been kept at home), students with learning difficulties, and families and communities who experience problems of poverty, malnutrition, illiteracy, low motivation for education and high rates of poor school attendance and school drop-outs. The challenges to ensure social inclusion of these groups include the high costs of providing schools for small populations, providing programmes and teachers for students with special educational needs, and dealing with the issues of poverty, malnutrition and high rates of adult illiteracy with the consequent limited interest and support for education. 39

20 Some special measures have been taken to adapt education to include members of vulnerable groups, although more remains to be done. More schools are being opened every year in remote and low population areas, appropriate instruction is now being provided for those for whom Arabic is not their first language and special programmes are being expanded to meet the educational needs of the handicapped and learning disabled. Section 1.2 of this report outlines major achievements in terms of access and availability to quality programmes to meet the needs of these populations. Efforts are currently underway to provide educational opportunities adapted to the unique circumstances of these groups and to include previously excluded groups into "mainstream" education. The following measures have contributed to the improved situation with regards to grade-level repetition and drop-outs: Reducing the number of second-shift (evening-school) classes in the same building as the day-school system The number of second-shift schools has been reduced from 344 in 1997 to 184 schools in 2003 (i.e. by 46.5 %). This was accomplished through establishing new schools and/or extending existing buildings to make them large enough to absorb evening class students. Implementing a programme to address students with learning difficulties Recognising that the difficulties in the learning process are some of the reasons behind school drop-outs and repetition, the Ministry of Education has designed programmes to address learning difficulties and trained teachers to identify students with learning difficulties. Such programmes are being further developed and extended to general usage throughout Oman's schools. Wheelchair accessibility Wheelchair accessibility is now included as a design feature in all new schools being built by the Ministry. This improves access to education and gives a clear message of acceptance and welcome to the physically disabled. Focusing on learning to read Educational research has shown there is a close relationship between the students' reading skills and their abilities in other subjects. In 2003 the 40