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1 Announcements Only 104 people have signed up for a project team if you have not signed up, or are on a team of 1, please try contacting other folks in the same situation if this fails, please me I will hold office hours tomorrow, 3-4:15, in Revelator Coffee No homework this week (or next) Midterm exam next Thursday (March 9) No class next Tuesday (I will be out of town)

2 Dimensionality reduction We observe data The goal of dimensionality reduction is to transform these inputs to new variables where in such a way that minimizes information loss Dimensionality reductions serves two main purposes: Helps (many) algorithms to be more computationally efficient Helps prevent overfitting (a form of regularization), especially when

3 Curse of dimensionality As the dimensionality of our feature space grows, the volume of the space increases A lot In learning, this often translates to requiring exponentially more data in order for the results to be reliable Example: With binary features, how much data do we need to have at least one example of every possible combination of features?

4 Dimensionality reduction Broadly speaking, methods for dimensionality reduction can be categorized according to: 1. How is information loss quantified? 2. Supervised or unsupervised? i.e., if labels are available, how are they used? 3. Is the map linear or nonlinear? 4. Feature selection versus feature extraction? vs

5 Feature selection Feature selection is the problem of selecting a subset of the variables that are most relevant for a machine learning task (e.g., classification or regression) Sometimes called subset selection There are three main reasons why we might want to perform feature selection: computational efficiency regularization retains interpretability Feature selection (and feature extraction) improves performance by eliminating irrelevant features

6 Filter methods Filter methods attempt to rank features in order of importance and then take the top features In supervised learning, importance is usually related to the ability of a feature to predict the label or response variable Advantage simple, fast Disadvantage the best features are usually not the best features The approach to ranking the features will depend on the application

7 Filtering in classification Consider training data and where How should we rank the features?

8 Ranking criteria Misclassification rate where is a classifier that compares the feature to a threshold Two sample t-test statistic where and are the within-class means for feature and is the pooled sample standard deviation

9 Ranking criteria Margin If the data is separable, then we can compute This can be made robust to the non-separable case by replacing the hard minimum with an order statistic that allows you to ignore some fixed number of outliers

10 Filtering in linear regression In linear regression, we have training data, where, and we expect to change linearly in response to changes in any How should we rank the features?

11 Correlation coefficient Pick the features which are most correlated with Set where

12 Mutual information The mutual information between and is This is the Kullback-Leibler (KL) divergence between the joint distribution and the product of the marginal distributions Note that if are independent You can intuitively think of much knowing tells us about as a measure of how

13 Maximizing mutual information If denotes a subset of features corresponding to, then ideally we would like to maximize over all possible of a desired size Unfortunately, this is typically intractable Instead we could rank the features according to where the mutual information is estimated by first computing histograms or some other estimate of and

14 Incremental maximization This is a legitimate strategy, but (just like the other methods we have discussed) it can lead to selecting highly redundant features With mutual information, there is a natural way to deal with this redundancy by selecting features incrementally For example, say that we have already selected features and wish to select one more Choose to maximize

15 Alternatives to filtering A big drawback to the filtering approach is that it usually doesn t capture interactions between features Can result in selecting redundant features Wrapper methods are an alternative with three ingredients: 1. a machine learning algorithm 2. a way to assess the performance of a subset of features 3. a strategy for searching through subsets of features Advantage captures feature interactions where filter methods do not Disadvantage can be slow

16 Examples 1. LR, SVM, nearest neighbors, least squares, 2. holdout error, cross validation, bootstrap, 3. Forward selection start with no features try adding each one, one at a time pick the best, and then repeat Backward elimination start with all features try removing each one, one at a time remove the worst, and then repeat Many, many others (see greedy algorithms for sparse recovery for hundreds of examples)

17 Embedded methods Embedded methods jointly perform feature selection and model fitting instead of dividing these into two separate processes The idea is to simultaneously learn a classifier or regression function that does well on the training data while only using a small number of features Prime examples: LASSO Any other learning algorithm that uses regularization -norm

18 Feature extraction In general, there may not be a small subset of features that works well Examples speech images almost any sampled signal How can we design a good mapping that minimizes the loss of information using only the data we are given? We will approach this from an unsupervised perspective

19 Principal component analysis (PCA) Unsupervised Linear Loss criteria: Sum of squared errors The idea behind PCA is to find an approximation where with orthonormal columns

20 Example From Chapter 14 of Hastie, Tibshirani, and Friedman

21 Derivation of PCA Mathematically, we can define and as the solution to The hard part of this problem is finding Given, it is relatively easy to show that

22 Determining Suppose are fixed. We wish to minimize Claim: We must have Why? Determining is just standard least-squares regression

23 Determining Setting and still supposing is fixed, our problem reduces to minimizing

24 Determining Taking the gradient with respect to to zero, we obtain and setting this equal The choice of is not unique, but the easy (and standard) way to ensure this equality holds is to set

25 Determining It remains to minimize with respect to For convenience, we will assume that otherwise we could just substitute, since In this case the problem reduces to minimizing

26 Determining Expanding this out, we obtain Thus, we can instead focus on maximizing

27 Determining Note that for any vector, we have Thus, we can write is a scaled version of the empirical covariance matrix, sometimes called the scatter matrix

28 Determining The problem of determining problem reduces to the optimization Analytically deriving the optimal is not too hard, but is a bit more involved than you might initially expect (especially if you already know the answer) We will provide justification for the solution for the case the general case is proven in the supplementary notes

29 One-dimensional example Consider the optimization problem Form the Lagrangian Take the gradient and set it equal to zero must be an eigenvector of Take to be the eigenvector of corresponding to the maximal eigenvalue

30 The general case For general values of, the solution is obtained by computing the eigendecomposition of : where and is an orthonormal matrix with columns where

31 The general case The optimal choice of in this case is given by i.e., take the top eigenvectors of Terminology principal component transform: principal component: principal eigenvector:

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