The Temporal Logic of Reactive and Concurrent Systems

Transcription

1 The Temporal Logic of Reactive and Concurrent Systems

2 Zahar Manna Amir Pnueli The Temporal Logic of Reactive and Concurrent Systems Specificatian With 96 Illustrations Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

3 Zohar Manna Department of Computer Science Stanford University Stanford, CA USA Computer Science Department Weizmann Institute of Science Rehovot, Israel Amir Pnueli Computer Science Department Weizmann Institute Rehovot, Israel Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Manna, Zohar. The temporal logic of reactive and concurrent systems / Zohar Manna, Amir Pnueli. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. Contents: v. 1. Specificat ion ISBN ISBN (ebook) DOI / Electronic digital computers --Programming. 2. Logic, Symbolic and mathematical. 1. Pnueli, A. II. Title. QA 76.6.M dc Printed on acid-free paper Springer Scienee+Business Media New York Originally published by Springer-Verlag New York, Ine. in 1992 Softeover reprint of the hardeover Ist edition 1992 All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or eopied in whole or in part without the written pennission of the publisher Springer Science+ Business Media, LLC except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any fonn of infonnation storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter deve10ped is forbidden. The use of general descriptive names, trade names, trademarks, etc., in this publication, even if the fonner are not especially identified, is not too be taken as a sign that such names, as understood by the Trade Marks and Merchandise Marks Acts, may accordingly be used freely by anyone. Production managed by Karen Phillipsj Manufacturing supervised by Robert Paella. Camera-ready copy prepared from the authors' TEX file ISBN

4 To Nitza and Ariela

5 Preface This book is about reactive programs, the systems they control, and a methodology for the formal specification, verification, and development of such programs, using the tool of temporal logic. A reactive program is a program whose role is to maintain an ongoing interaction with its environment rather than to compute some final value on termination. The family of reactive programs includes most of the classes of programs whose correct and reliable construction is considered to be particularly challenging, including concurrent and real-time programs, embedded and process control programs, and operating systems. A fundamental element in reactive programs is that of concurrency. By definition, a reactive program runs concurrently with its environment. Also most of the sample programs studied in this book are concurrent programs, which consist of several processes executed concurrently. The techniques presented are often used to specify and analyze the interaction between the concurrent components of such programs. We may therefore describe the subject matter of the book as the study and analysis of interaction, either between a program and its environment or between concurrent processes within a program. As has been amply demonstrated in many case histories, the correct construction of reliable reactive programs is one of the most challenging programming activities. Seemingly innocuous small concurrent programs have been known to exhibit completely unanticipated behaviors that, in some cases, may lead to crashes of critical systems. This is why formal approaches to the development of correct programs, such as the one promoted in this book, are so essential to the area of reactive programs. A formal methodology typically consists of several elements. One element is a specification language in which the anticipated requirements from a program can be formally specified. Another is a repertoire of proof methods by which the correctness of a proposed program, relative to the specification, can be formally verified. The advantages of a formal methodology are obvious. Formal specification forces the designers of a program to make early precise decisions about the major functionalities of the program and to remove ambiguities from the descrip-

6 viii Preface tion of its expected behavior. Formal verification of a desired property guarantees that the property holds over all possible executions of the program. As a specification language, we adopt temporal logic, which is an appropriate and convenient language for specifying the dynamic behavior of reactive programs and describing their properties. The main advantage of the temporal language is that it provides a succinct and natural expression of frequently occurring program properties using a set of special operators. A considerable part of this volume is devoted to a comprehensive and selfcontained introduction to temporal logic and the illustration of its use for specifying properties of reactive systems. Intended Audience and Prerequisites The book is intended for people who are interested in the design, construction, and analysis of reactive systems and who wish to learn the language of temporal logic and how to apply it to the specification, verification, and development of reactive systems. The background assumed of our readers consists, on one hand, of some familiarity and experience with programming and programming languages, in particular, some acquaintance with the basic notions of concurrent execution of programs; and on the other hand, a reasonable understanding of first-order logic and the notions of validity and provability by deductive systems. No prior knowledge of temporal logic is assumed, and no detailed knowledge of any particular programming language is necessary, since these two topics are introduced here. Contents The book is partitioned into two volumes. The first volume, subtitled Specification and consisting of Chapters 1 to 4, presents a computational model and a programming language for reactive programs and the specification language of temporal logic. The second volume, subtitled Verification and consisting of Chapters 5 to 11, is dedicated to the presentation of proof methods for verifying that a given program satisfies its specification. Chapter 1 introduces the computational model and the programming language. In the programming language, we make a special effort to give a comprehensive representation of the main mechanisms for communication and synchronization between concurrent processes. Consequently, the language allows processes to communicate both by shared variables and by message-passing. Our intention in this book is to present a uniform approach to communication within reactive programs, which is independent of the particular communication mechanisms employed. Consequently, we show how some central paradigms in concurrent programming, such as mutual exclusion or producer-consumer, can be programmed in terms of either shared variables or different versions of messagepassing.

7 Preface ix Chapter 2 further elaborates the computational model. The computational model used in the book represents concurrency by interleaving of atomic actions chosen, one at a time, from parallel processes. This chapter examines the question of how faithfully this representation corresponds to real concurrent execution of programs, in which several parallel statements execute at the same time. By imposing a syntactical restriction on the programs we study and introducing fairness requirements, we ensure exact correspondence between interleaved and real concurrent execution of a program. Chapter 3 introduces the language of temporal logic, presenting its syntax and semantics. The temporal language contains two symmetric groups of temporal operators, one dealing with the future and the other with the past. We list and discuss many properties of the temporal operators. Formal means for the derivation of temporal properties are provided by a deductive proof system. Chapter 4 explores the utility of temporal logic as a language for specifying properties of reactive programs. Program properties are classified into a hierarchy of classes, based on their expression in temporal logic. The most important classes are the classes of safety, response, and reactivity properties. For each class, we provide a comprehensive set of examples of commonly encountered program properties. We also explore the important topic of modular specification, where each module (process) of the program is independently specified. This concludes Volume 1. Volume 2 is dedicated to the presentation of techniques and heuristics for the verification of program properties expressed by temporal formulas. It is organized in three parts, presenting rules for the verification of properties that belong to the classes of safety, response, and reactivity. Chapters 5 to 7 deal with the verification of safety properties, Chapters 8 to 10 with the verification of response properties, and Chapter 11 with the remaining classes. Teaching the Book The material contained in the book can be used as a basis for computer science courses on several levels. Each volume is suitable for a one-semester course. The complete book has been taught in a two-semester course at Stanford University and the Weizmann Institute. Such a course can be given both at a senior undergraduate level and at a graduate level. The Fast Track There are several sections of Volume 1 that are not essential or central to the understanding of the main topics of the book. If one is interested in a course that covers less material, then these sections are the first candidates for dropping out altogether or assigning as independent reading. In Chapter 1 these are Sections 1.2, 1.6, and In Chapter 2, Sections 2.9

8 x Preface and 2.10 cover more-advanced and less-essential matters and are candidates for skipping. In Chapter 4, Sections 4.7, 4.8, and 4.9 are less central than the others. Problems Each chapter concludes with a set of problems. Some of the problems are intended to let the readers test their understanding of the material covered in the chapter. Other problems introduce material that was not covered in the chapter. There are problems that explore alternatives to the way some topics were introduced and developed. The problems are graded according to their difficulty. Difficult problems are annotated by *. Research-level problems are annotated by **. To indicate which problems pertain to a given portion of the text, we annotate the text with references to the appropriate problems, and we provide a page reference with each problem. In solving a problem, readers may use any results that appeared in the text prior to the corresponding page reference. They may also use the results of any previous problem and previous parts of the same problem. A booklet containing answers to the problems is available to instructors. Please contact the publisher directly. Bibliography Following each chapter, there is a brief bibliographic discussion mentioning some ofthe research contributions relevant to the topics covered in the chapter. In spite of our sincere effort to refer to all the important relevant works, we may have missed some. We apologize for that omission and would welcome any corrections and comments. A Support System We recommend to our readers a program, available on the Macintosh, that checks the validity of propositional temporal formulas. This program can help with exercises concerning temporal logic. For information about obtaining the system, write to Temporal Prover Box 9215 Stanford, CA Acknowledgment We wish to acknowledge the help of many colleagues and students in reading the manuscript in its (almost infinite) number of versions and for their useful comments and suggestions. Particularly helpful suggestions were made by Rajeev Alur, Eddie Chang, Avraham Ginzburg, David Gries, Tom Henzinger, Daphne Koller, Narciso Marti-Oliet, Roni Rosner, Richard Waldinger and Liz Wolf.

9 Preface xi We would like to thank our students at Stanford University and the Weizmann Institute for their detailed comments and helpful criticisms. For support of the research behind this book, we thank the Air Force Office of Scientific Research, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, the National Science Foundation, and the European Community Esprit project. Sarah Fliegelman has done a magnificent job of typesetting the book. The detailed technical knowledge and expertise, provided by ~ - w i Joe z aweening, r d have been invaluable. Eric Muller spent long hours patiently preparing all the computer-generated diagrams, and Yehuda Barbut provided the hand-drawn sketches. Rajeev Alur has been of special assistance in the preparation of problems for this volume and has written the booklet of solutions. Roni Rosner was most helpful in the preparation of the bibliographic remarks. We are particularly grateful to Carron Kirkwood for the design of the cover of the book. Stanford University Weizmann Institute Z.M. A.P.

10 Contents Preface Part I: Models of Concurrency 1 Chapter 1: Basic Models The Generic Model Modell: Transition Diagrams Model 2: Shared-Variables Text Semantics of Shared-Variables Text Structural Relations Between Statements Behavioral Equivalence Grouped Statements Semaphore Statements Region Statements Model 3: Message-Passing Text Model 4: Petri Nets 86 Problems 93 Bibliographic Notes 100 Chapter 2: Modeling Real Concurrency Interleaving and Concurrency Limiting the Critical References Justice (Weak Fairness) Implications of the Justice Requirements Compassion (Strong Fairness) Synchronization Statements Communication Statements Summary: Fair Transition Systems Fairness in Petri Nets Semantic Considerations of Fairness 153 Problems 159 Bibliographic Notes 173 vii

11 xiv Contents Part II: Specifications Chapter 3: Temporal Logic 3.1 State Formulas 3.2 Temporal Formulas: Future Operators 3.3 Temporal Formulas: Past Operators 3.4 Basic Properties of the Temporal Operators 3.5 A Proof System 3.6 Axioms for a Proof System 3.7 Basic Inference Rules 3.8 Derived Inference Rules 3.9 Equality and Quantifiers 3.10 From General Validity to Program Validity Problems Bibliographic Notes Chapter 4: Properties of Programs 4.1 The Local Language 4.2 The Classification of Properties 4.3 Examples of Safety: State Invariances 4.4 Examples of Safety: Past Invariances 4.5 Examples of Progress Properties: From Guarantee to Reactivity 4.6 Example: A Resource Allocator 4.7 Expressivity of the Specification Language 4.8 Specification of Reactive Modules 4.9 Composing Modular Specifications Problems Bibliographic Notes References Index to Symbols General Index