ROLE OF EDUCATION IN SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA

Transcription

1 70 ROLE OF EDUCATION IN SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA Subhash Chandra Singh Abstract India has made significant achievements in the field of education during the past few years. Despite substantial progress, the education sector in India faces several challenges. The overall education level of India s population remains lower compared to other developing countries. While the development planners rightly recognized that expansion of educational facilities has to be accompanied with significant improvements in quality and relevance of education at all levels, the outcome is quite disappointing. Quality cannot improve by itself. It requires reforms in a holistic manner. It includes strong civil-society professional and voluntary organisations, and co-operative institutions and programmes. The argument of this paper is that education (and other) policies have to be framed explicitly in relation to political and economic development strategies based on the current needs if they are to contribute to the construction of a new India. The formulation of these strategies and of the policies which are intended to implement them is problematic so they must take into account the contradictions, possibilities and constraints of the conjunctural and structural conditions they are designed to overcome. Introduction Education has a central role and responsibility in social transformation, in the promotion of values of respect and understanding, and in assisting communities to confront the challenges of climate change and sustainable development. In every country, rich or poor, education lays the necessary foundations for establishing good governance, democratic participation and human rights. It provides the means for empowering disadvantaged and marginalised groups and promoting their inclusion in society. Education is a powerful tool for participation in the knowledge economy for individuals, and to improving productivity at the local and national level. This underlines the need for a multi-sectoral approach to development. Education for transformation requires especially that countries work actively, intentionally and proactively to address gender equity. In most contemporary contexts this calls for special support for education of women and girls, who have so often been deprived of opportunities for personal development through learning. Although discrimination against women is often rooted in social and cultural attitudes and practices that are slow to change, there is ample international experience of successful intervention measures that can make a real impact on the problem. The role of higher education institutions in social change during the initial developing stage was more obvious and clearly visible than its role in the ongoing transformation of contemporary Indian society. However the intensely differentiated nature of higher education both in the past and present makes it difficult to speak about it as a system having coherence and an undifferentiated identity; hence it is problematic to conceive of a positive empirical relationship between higher education and social transformation in India. The role of higher education institutions in contributing to the collapse of the traditional social order cannot be answered in an abstract, generalizable or purely causal manner. The state and civil society in India in the past few decades have undergone remarkable changes, yet the resilience of old practices and ideas remains the cause of immense frustration and at times, anger. Professor of Law & Dean, School of Legal Studies, Assam University, Silchar, India. solmgkvp@yahoo.co.in

2 71 The capacity of the state to steer change in the higher education sector is complicated by the nature of the transition, macro-economic policies associated with dominant conceptions of globalization, and significant cultural barriers that want to resist changes within higher education in the terms posed under transformation discourses. Nevertheless, while the state may not be able to in the short-term change society entirely on the basis of its own vision using higher education institutions as instruments, longerterm changes in social relations are taking place through the normal functioning of these institutions. This paper seeks to contribute to the contemporary debate about the role that education can play in addressing poor living conditions especially in the local areas where some Indian universities are located. The paper is premised on the notion that the government cannot work independently of other organisations, such as universities, in pursuit of social transformation in India. In addition, universities have inherent resources, human and materialistic, which if adequately utilize and shared with local communities, can play a significant role in social transformation and development of rural communities. Education for Social Transformation and Sustainable Development Education seems to provide the solution for all problems that arise on the social and individual level of a society. Education has been increasingly regarded as a major instrument of social change. Education is helpful in solving poverty and creates social mobility. 1 The deep foundations of inequality of the sexes are built in the minds of men and women through a socialization process which continues to be extremely powerful. The only institution which can counteract the effect of this process is the educational system. If education is to promote equality for women, it must make a deliberate, planned and sustained effort so that the new values of equality of the sexes can replace the traditional value system of inequality. There is still ambiguity in the literature when it comes to the very definition of social transformation itself. The issues of how and what must be transformed, always come up whenever the issue of social transformation is discussed in literature. Reddy describes social transformation as a complex process which is informed by processes like change in political ideas that lead to economic change and socialization of people and transmission of knowledge, skills culture and values. 2 Development is another issue that needs to be discussed in the present context. Nel, Hill and Binns state that the development is not about the delivery of goods to a passive citizenry, but it is about active involvement and growing empowerment. The empowerment implies the development of skills to enable them to cross a threshold, which has qualitative importance to them and their lives. Development is about empowering people to perform a set of task at a high standard, where standards are measured by their appropriateness for a specific and yet dynamic social or economic purpose. 3 Education for sustainable development (ESD) is a dynamic concept that encompasses a new vision of education that seeks to empower people of all ages to assume responsibility for creating and enjoying a sustainable future. 4 The overall aim of ESD is to empower citizens to act for positive environmental and social change, implying a participatory and action-oriented approach. ESD integrates concepts and analytical tools from a variety of disciplines to help people better understand the world in which they live. Pursuing sustainable development through education requires educators and learners to 1 Weinberg, Carl, Education and Social Problem (The Free Press, New York (1971). 2 Reddy, T., Higher Education and Social Transformation (University of Cape Town, Cape Town, 2004). 3 Nel, E., Hill, T. & Binns, T., Development from Below in the New South Africa: the Case of Hertzog, Eastern Cape, The Geographical Journal 163 (1 ): 58 (1997). 4 UNESCO, Education for Sustainability From Rio to Johannesburg: Lessons Learnt from a Decade of Commitment, 2002.

3 72 reflect critically on their own communities; identify non-viable elements in their lives; and explore tensions among conflicting values and goals. ESD brings a new motivation to learning as pupils become empowered to develop and evaluate alternative visions of a sustainable future and to work to collectively fulfill these visions. 5 From the time sustainable development was first endorsed at the United Nations (UN) General Assembly in 1987, the concept of education for sustainable development has also been explored. The 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro brought together representatives of Governments, international and non-governmental organisations (NGOs), and civil society to discuss the challenges of the next century and to adopt a global plan of action to meet these challenges. The action plan, known as Agenda 21, provided a comprehensive set of principles to assist Governments and other institutions in implementing sustainable development policies and programmes. Chapter 36 of Agenda 21 affirmed education as essential for making progress toward sustainable development. Following UNCED, the Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) appointed UNESCO to be the Task Manager for Chapter 36, responsible for accelerating education reforms and coordinating stakeholder. For over a decade, many higher education institutions, NGOs, and Government agencies worldwide have made significant efforts to incorporate sustainable development into academic programmes, operations and community outreach. From these experiences, it is clear that while there may be agreement on the overall goals of ESD, its creation and implementation at local, regional, and national levels differ to meet diverse social, economic, and environmental conditions in relevant and culturally appropriate ways. Moreover, educational approaches must also take into account the experiences of indigenous cultures and minorities and both acknowledge and facilitate their original and important contributions to the process of sustainable development activities. Social Exclusion and Disadvantaged Social Classes The Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) are among the most socially and educationally disadvantaged groups in India. This paper examines issues concerning school access and equity for Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe communities and also highlights their unique problems, which may require divergent policy responses. The Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) are among the most socially and educationally disadvantaged groups in India. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes have different histories of social and economic deprivation, and the underlying causes of their educational marginalisation are also strikingly distinct. Historically, SC communities were systematically segregated from the rest of the village and were denied access to education, housing and land. Public places such as temples, wells for drinking water, restaurants, toilets, and many other civic facilities were also out of bounds for them. 6 The poor educational achievements of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes can be best understood in the context of deeply embedded caste and social hierarchies that are enacted and expressed in everyday social interactions of community, school and economic life. Studies show that caste-based discrimination continues to be an influential factor in the low educational mobility of both Scheduled 5 These elements have been abstracted from the draft document, Education for Sustainable Development: the Education Sector Paper, a report prepared by ESD for an inter-sectoral meeting, March 5, Alexander, J.M., Inequality, Poverty and Affirmative Action: Contemporary Trends in India, Paper prepared for the WIDER conference, Inequality, Poverty and Human Well-Being, May, 2003, United Nations University, Helsinki, Finland.

4 73 Caste and Scheduled Tribe groups, despite government programmes that selectively target aid to children from these communities. 7 In , the gross enrollment ratio in higher education of SCs and STs were 13.5 percent and 12.9 percent in comparison to 19.4 percent of general category students and in , the gross enrollment ratio in higher education of SCs and STs were 14.5 percent and 10.8 percent in comparison to 20.4 percent of general category students. The Centre has recently launched Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA) which intends to incentivise the states for developing higher education with equity and inclusion. The history of Scheduled Tribe movements is quite different in that basic livelihood needs and the struggle to retain access to forests and natural resources took centre stage in their struggles for dignity and a better life, while access to education remained a secondary issue. 8 The Constitution of India incorporates several special provisions for the promotion of the educational and economic interests of Scheduled Tribes as well as their protection from social injustice and all forms of exploitation. These objectives are to be achieved through a strategy known as the Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP) strategy, which was adopted at the beginning of the Fifth Five Year Plan ( ). The strategy seeks to ensure adequate flow of funds for tribal development from the State Plan allocations, schemes/programmes of central ministries/departments, financial and developmental institutions. The corner-stone of this strategy has been to ensure that funds are earmarked for TSP by states/uts in proportion to their Scheduled Tribe populations. 9 Using the native language as the medium of instruction has also long been recognized as an important factor for successful learning. This is as especially important for ST children who often speak dialects that are different from the regional or state language. The 1986 National Policy on Education and the more recent revised National Curriculum Framework recommended the use of local languages in the early stages of education. 10 The concept of capabilities, first proposed by Amartya Sen, provides a useful perspective in developing curriculum and classroom processes that will benefit Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe communities. 11 There is an undeniable and powerful link between the social exclusion of disadvantaged social classes and groups, and equity of access, opportunity and outcomes and achievement in schooling and education. To take another statistic: currently 60% of school going children in India come from families that earn less than Rs. 1000/- a month. The consequences of this have to be and are manifested in differential school performance and achievement. Without a political crusade and appropriate and extensive interventions on the part of government to significantly improve the economic and social circumstances of millions of working class and rural poor Indians supported by an effective developmental state, the experiences of school drop-outs, poor retention, restricted educational opportunities and outcomes will be principally borne by these social classes. The elimination of extreme inequalities of income, wealth and by association also opportunity are not only moral and social 7 Secada, W.G., Educational Equity versus Equality of Education: An Alternative Conception, in Secada, W.G. (ed.), Equity in Education (New York: Falmer Press, 1989). 8 Surajit, S., Tribal Solidarity Movements in India: A Review, in Shah, G. (ed.) Social Movements and the State: Readings in Indian Government and Politics (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 2002). 9 Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Annual Report (New Delhi: Government of India, 2005). 10 NCERT (National Council of Educational Research and Training), National Curriculum Framework Review 2005 (Draft) (New Delhi: NCERT, 2005). 11 Drèze, J. and Sen, A.K., India: Development and Participation (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2002).

5 74 imperatives but also an economic necessity, as currently thousands of jobs cannot be filled because the capabilities of unemployed and working and rural poor people remain unrealized. This leads us to the proposition that with the best will in the world education on its own cannot transform and develop our society. Education is a necessary condition of transformation and development but is not a sufficient condition. That is to say, there must be simultaneous transformation and development initiatives in other arenas of our society if education is to make an effective contribution and if those who receive education are also to derive maximum benefits from it. During the past sixty years of democracy there have been some important economic and social gains. Yet the reality is that India continues to be one of the most unequal societies in the global arena in terms of disparities in wealth, income, opportunities, and living conditions. In broader terms, the Socially Disadvantaged Groups include the Scheduled Castes (SCs), the Scheduled Tribes (STs), the Other Backward Classes (OBCs) and the Minorities. The Ninth Five Year Plan is committed to empower these Groups, as the agents of socio-economic change and development through a three pronged strategy of i) Social Empowerment; ii) Economic Empowerment; and iii) Social Justice. Education being the most effective instrument for empowering these Groups, high priority continues to be accorded to improve the educational status of SCs, STs, OBCs and Minorities, especially that of the women and the girl child. Although, there has been an increase in the literacy rates amongst the SCs and STs, yet they continue to lag behind the general population. To Supplement the efforts of the Department of Education, the two nodal Ministries of Social Justice and Empowerment and Tribal Affairs have been implementing a few exclusive educational programmes viz., Post-Matric Scholarships to SCs and STs benefitting lakh students; Pre-Matric Scholarships for the children of those engaged in unclean occupation benefitting about lakh students; construction of Hostels for SC/ST/OBC Boys and Girls; and Ashram Schools for STs. Educational empowerment schemes like setting up of residential coaching academies for minorities, SC, ST and women in central universities, deemed to be universities, establishment of equal opportunity cells for SC, ST and minorities are being implemented by the UGC. Other UGC sponsored schemes are postdoctoral fellowships for SC, ST, Rajiv Gandhi national fellowships for SC, ST, setting up of Centre for Studies in Social Exclusion and Inclusive Policy, remedial coaching schemes for SCs, STs, OBC and minorities, scheme of career oriented courses in universities and colleges, construction of women`s hostels for colleges. The UGC has also assisted institutions to establish Equal Opportunity Cells to oversee the effective implementation of policies and programmes for disadvantaged groups and to provide guidance and counseling in academic, financial, social and other matters. The Cell would also take up programmes to sensitize University/ Colleges on problems faced by Scheduled Caste (SC) and Scheduled Tribe (ST) categories in higher education. One time grant of Rs.2.00 lakhs for establishing the office of Equal Opportunity Cells is being provided. Education at all levels can shape the world of tomorrow, equipping individuals and societies with the skills, perspectives, knowledge and values to live and work in a sustainable manner. Education for sustainable development (ESD) is a vision of education that seeks to balance human and economic wellbeing with cultural traditions and respect for the earth s natural resources. ESD applies trans-disciplinary educational methods and approaches to develop an ethic for lifelong learning; fosters respect for human needs that are compatible with sustainable use of natural resources and the needs of the planet; and nurtures a sense of global solidarity.

6 75 It is particularly doubtful that education helps to improve the position of the poor and powerless, to increase equality and justice in the society. 12 Economic and social transformations come by education. 13 But educational opportunities, as is now widely recognized, cannot be equalized, nor can education equalize opportunity unless society is reasonably equal. 14 Education produces social change but also social class which creates conflict in the society. 15 Bridging Gender Gap Women constitute per cent of the total population of India in The principle of gender equity is enshrined in Indian Constitution in its preamble, fundamental, rights, fundamental duties and directive principles and also reducing the gender gap in higher education is a focus area. The goal of bridging gender gap in education and women s empowerment has received priority attention in all Five-Year Plans. The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) provides a special focus on education of girls. Bridging gender gaps in elementary education continues to be a key goal of the SSA. The SSA has mainstreamed gender concerns in all activities under the programme. In addition to programmatic interventions undertaken to promote girls education within the mainstream elementary education system such as ensuring the availability of primary and upper primary schools within the habitation as prescribed under the Right to Education (RTE) Rules, provision of uniforms, textbooks etc., girls education is pursued through certain specific interventions subsumed under SSA namely, the National Programme for Girls Education at Elementary Level (NPEGEL) and Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV). There has also been impressive progress towards bridging gender gap in enrolment and retention in elementary education. Between and , the enrolment of girls as percentage of total enrolment in primary education has increased from 43.8 per cent to 48.2 per cent, while the enrolment of girls as percentage of total enrolment in upper primary education increased from 40.9 per cent to 48.6 per cent. The enrolment of girls as percentage of total enrolment in Classes IX-XII (secondary and higher secondary education) increased from 38.8 per cent in to 47.1 per cent in The Gender Parity Index (GPI) for GER in primary education improved from 0.82 in to 1.03 in , while the GPI for GER in upper primary education improved from 0.75 to 1.08 during this period. The GPI for GER in secondary education improved from 0.79 in to 1.0 in while the GPI for GER in higher secondary education improved from 0.80 to 0.98 during this period. The GPI for adult literacy rate improved from 0.65 in 2001 to 0.75 in 2011 while the GPI for youth literacy rate improved from 0.81 to 0.91 during this period. There has also been a phenomenal growth in a number of women enrolled in higher education since independence. Women enrolment was less than 10% of the total enrolment on the eve of independence and it has risen to Women and men, and girls and boys need to be provided equal opportunities and chances. Women and men need to participate as equals in all of our activities, and benefit fairly from the outcomes and impacts of our interventions. Gaps in gender equality need to be assessed and brought to public 12 Chemens, Iris, Education and Women: About Castes, Marriage Markets and the Illusion of Deconstruction, Man in India, 3&4: ). 13 Chitnis, Suma: Education of the Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes in Maharastra, in A.B. Shah (ed.), The Social Cost of Education 242 (New Delhi: Allied Publishers, 1978). 14 Ahmed Karuna: Towards Equality: Consequences of Protective Discrimination, Economic and Political Weekly (New Delhi), 13: (1979). 15 Corwin, Ronald G., Education in Crisis (John Wiley, New York, 1974). 16 Census of India, 2011.

7 76 awareness. The issues of gender inequity and inequalities in education need to be tackled with a strong commitment to improve educational opportunities for this unreached and underserved group. Plans and programmes need to target and produce favorable results and consequences for the gender disadvantaged population group. Women need to be empowered through capacity development, and be given the ability to make free and informed decisions, as well as fair opportunities to access resources. Support needs to be provided to assist countries in closing existing gaps in gender equality and women s empowerment. Women s empowerment is a global issue and discussion on women s political right are at the fore front of many formal and informal campaigns worldwide. The concept of women s empowerment was introduced at the international women s conference at Nairobi in Education is milestone of women s empowerment because it enables them to responds to the challenges, to confront their traditional role and change their life. The overall policy goal should be to increase the participation of women in higher education management including in faculty, administration and staff for better gender balance, to sensitize the higher education system through policies and procedures which recognize gender equity and to involve women capable of becoming administrators for the qualitative development of higher education. The empowerment through higher education involves activities like sensitization, awareness, motivation workshops, development and distribution of resource material, research stimulation workshops, management skill workshops etc. Concern for Quality Education This is how the Education Commission described the role of education in social and economic transformation of India. While the development planners rightly recognized that expansion of educational facilities has to be accompanied with significant improvements in quality and relevance of education at all levels, the outcome is quite disappointing. At the international level, the development experience in social sectors shows that a literate society has enormous gains over an illiterate society and no illiterate society has ever been able to modernize and progress. We are now transiting to a knowledge society where the quality and relevance of education would play a crucial role in economic development. Poor quality of teaching learning and systemic level inefficiencies affect the learners as well the society in many ways. The long-term implications include lower productivity levels of the perspective workforce, resistance to modernization and perpetuation of inefficient production systems where cost benefit ratio adversely affect the economic sustainability of production processes. As far as the provision of access and coverage is concerned, India today boasts of its educational system being the second largest in the world. It consists of nearly 610 thousand primary and 185 thousand upper primary schools, about a quarter million nonformal education centers, about 1.87 million teachers and 110 million students study in primary classes in the recognized schools ( ). As per 1991 Census estimates there were about million children in primary school going age group in the country. The latest educational statistics indicate a GER of 89.7 percent for primary classes (81.2 percent being for girls and 97.7 percent for boys). The number of students in primary classes in India is larger than the total population of the neighboring Bangladesh. No doubt, the system can claim it to be one of the largest, but it cannot make similar claims for efficiency, quality and achievement of learners? Transforming Education for Quality Education The concern for quality education has been voiced from time to time in India. The National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986 and the revised NPE, 1992, again highlighted the urgency to address the quality

8 77 concerns on priority basis. 17 Quality cannot improve by itself. It requires multi-pronged and strategic reforms in course curriculum; teacher training; improvements in the facilities and infrastructure in schools; teachers motivation; effective use of information technology and a change in the style of teaching to make it attractive to the students. The policy also recommended that a system of continuous and comprehensive evaluation need to be developed. Standardised assessments, linking school recognitions to learning outcomes and improving accountability through effective school management committees, can help transform our education system. Encouraging better governance and school leadership practices that are committed to providing well-rounded education can further improve the quality of education. Most importantly, however, we need to make learning outcomes the explicit goal of our education policy, focus on setting standards to measure these outcomes and take concrete action to achieve them. In our aspiration to become a developed country, it is necessary for us to create a worldclass education system. A series of programmes have been implemented by the Central and State/UT Governments to foster quality education and improve student learning outcomes. The SSA has been investing a substantial proportion of its funds in recruitment of additional teachers for Government schools. This has brought about a substantial improvement in teacher availability. The total number of teachers engaged in teaching in schools imparting elementary education has increased from 5.2 million in to 7.7 million in The Pupil-Teacher Ratio (PTR) at the primary level has improved from 36:1 in to 25:1 in However, some States still have higher PTR. To monitor children s learning levels of students in Classes III, V and VIII, three cycles of National Achievement Surveys (NAS) have been conducted since The purpose of these surveys is to obtain an overall picture of what students in specific Classes know and can do and to use these findings to identify gaps, diagnose areas that need improvement and formulate policies and interventions for improving student learning. Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA) had a completely new approach towards higher education. It strives to improve access, equity and quality in higher education. Save the Children, in collaboration with the National University of Educational Planning and Administration, organised an international conference on Transforming Schools for Quality Education, from 12th to 14th April, 2013 at India Habitat Centre. The conference which was spread over three days revolved around the theme of school standards, school leadership as well as inclusive practices. It was attended by 115 participants from the UK, Finland, Thailand and Australia, and 16 Indian states. All were experts in the field of school leadership, teaching and learning standards and inclusive practice. The project Exchange of International Best Practices Leading to Innovation in Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, funded by the European Union, has been implemented in India since July It aims at building the capacities of policy makers and implementers through an international exchange of productive practices which address the current challenges in reaching the target outcomes of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA). 18 Quality of education in universities is obviously an area in which our higher education system lags behind other countries. It is quite disheartening that none of the Indian universities finds a place in 17 Government of India, National Policy on Education, 1986 (MHRD, New Delhi); Government of India, Selected Educational Statistics, 1999 (MHRD, New Delhi). 18 Sarva Siksha Abhiyan (SSA) is the national level educational reform programme aiming at universalising compulsory education and inclusive practice in India. This project has been developed and led by Save the Children, India, in collaboration with the Government of India. SSA also involves education practitioners and academics who are involved in reforms at the national, state and district levels.

9 78 the top 200 universities in the world. Shortage of quality teachers is a big problem, the policy makers should think about ways and means to address the issue. Some emphasized on moral education and the course curriculum should strive to inculcate moral values among faculty members, students and staff. So far as higher education is concerned, educational institutions should focus more on research and promote an environment conducive to creativity and innovation. Use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Schools The use of information and communication technology to complement and supplement classroom teaching and learning is pursued as an important strategy for fostering quality education at elementary and secondary stages of education. Both under SSA and RMSA, States have been assisted to provide computer hardware and related facilities. These facilities would also be leveraged to provide online course content and related materials to students. Key activities include providing computer equipment or labs to schools, development of curriculum based e-learning materials in local languages, and training of teachers in computer use. In order to provide opportunities to secondary school students to build their capacity on ICT skills and make computer-enabled learning a reality, a Centrally-sponsored Scheme of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Schools was launched in The Scheme was revised in The main components of the revised Scheme include (i) partnership with State Governments and Union Territory Administrations for providing computer-aided education in Government and Government-aided secondary and higher secondary schools; (ii) establishment of 150 smart schools to act as technology demonstrators ; (iii) teacher-related interventions, such as provision for engagement of an exclusive teacher, capacity enhancement of all teachers in ICT and a scheme for national ICT award as a means of motivation; and (iv) development of e-content. Under the scheme financial assistance is provided for procurement of computers and peripherals, educational software, training of teachers, development of e-contents, Internet connectivity and setting up of smart schools. Out of the total target of 183,648 Government and Government-aided secondary and higher secondary schools under the scheme, around 97,000 schools have been covered by the end of academic year Out of the target of setting up of 150 smart schools, 63 smart schools have so far been approved in 12 States and three Union Territories under the Scheme. Challenges of the Relationship between Education and Development In India it is a widely-held view that education is an important instrument for social transformation and development. Here, it may be noted that education is accorded immense and unwarranted weight as a mechanism of social transformation. In these approaches the extra-educational conditions which may either facilitate or block the effects of the educational system or which may simultaneously favour or inhibit them, are neglected. However, as it is said, education may be a necessary condition for certain social processes, but it is not a sufficient condition, and hence cannot be analysed as an autonomous social force. The historian Bill Nasson has expressed the role of education in social change in similar terms: education (is) an important participating force, but not an arbitrating one. 19 We may go on to argue that from the standpoint of the struggle for social transformation, the importance of this conclusion is that structures and processes of educational change must be linked to changes in other social conditions and institutions. In a seminal 1978 article analysing the relationship between education and development and subtitled From the age of innocence to the age of scepticism, Hans Weiler advanced a similar argument: 19 Chisholm, L. (ed.), Changing Class: Education and Social Change in Post-apartheid South Africa 13 (Pretoria: Human Science Research Council, 2004).

10 79 There is little evidence to suggest that education, even with a tremendous effort at reducing its own internal disparities, is likely to have an appreciable impact on the achievement of greater distributive justice in the society at large, as long as that society is under the influence of a relatively intact alliance of economic wealth, social status and political power which is interested in preserving the status quo. 20 It should be clear that the fundamental challenge is to improve the quality of education in schools. To be sure, resources for equity of access for poor students, targeted nutrition programmes, facilities, toilets and the adequate remuneration of teachers are important, but they are not a sufficient condition for effective schooling and education. There are also a number of other necessary conditions. One is to ensure that there exists a culture of effective learning and teaching and where this is absent to move diligently restore this culture. A key element here is purposeful and effective educational leadership and management on the part of a range of actors that include the Ministry of Education, provincial ministries, district offices and, especially school heads. Despite almost universal formal participation in schooling, our schools continue to evince significant problems related to drop outs, retention, progression and successful completion. As has been noted, the simple reality is that enrolment is not the same as attendance and attendance does not imply learning. 21 International Commitments Heads of states, NGOs, businesses and other major groups reaffirmed their commitment to education at the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg. The centrality of education, defined broadly, to the creation of a sustainable future is evident through several references in almost every chapter of the Plan of Implementation and in Paragraph 18 of the Political Declaration. The WSSD Plan of Implementation recognises education as critical for sustainable development in its own right, but also sees education as a key agent for change and a tool for addressing such questions as gender equality, rural development, health care, HIV/AIDS, and consumption patterns, as these intersect with the sustainable development agenda. 22 The Education for All (EFA) goals promulgated in Dakar in 2000 also commit governments to improve the quality of education, extend pre-school education and adult literacy, and strengthen provision of skills for young people and adults. India s focus should be on this broader agenda since the EFA goals are mutually reinforcing, and UPE is unlikely to be achievable without complementary progress towards attaining the other goals. On December 20, 2002 the UN General Assembly adopted, by consensus, a resolution establishing a Decade of Education for Sustainable Development. The resolution designates the ten-year period as , and declares UNESCO as the lead agency to promote the Decade. UNESCO will have a dual role to play: first as the lead agency in the promotion of the Decade, and second as a substantive implementer of ESD. Improving the quality and coverage of education and reorienting its goals to recognise the importance of sustainable development must be one of UNESCO s and the world s highest priorities in the upcoming Decade. Education for Sustainable Development must also be attentive to developments and reforms in education, particularly the Dakar Framework for Action on Education for All (EFA), the UN Literacy Decade (UNLD), and Millennium Development Goals. The challenge of 20 Weiler, H. N., Education and Development: From the Age of Innocence to the Age of Scepticism, Comparative Education, 14 (3) (1978). 21 Sayed, Y., Education and Poverty Reduction Eradication: Omissions, Fashions and Promises (Unpublished Mimeo, 2007), p Address by the Director General, UNESCO, to the Permanent Delegations following the WSSD, 30/09/02.

11 80 applying Education for Sustainable Development requires partnerships among Governments, academic and scientific communities, teachers, NGOs, local communities and the media. The Decade offers an opportunity for UNESCO and its partners to reorient education toward the awareness that we share a common destiny and a commitment to a better future for both people and the planet. UNESCO was also charged with providing professional and technical support to Member States; developing sample curriculum and training materials; and disseminating innovative ESD policies, programmes, and practices. National Efforts for Ensuring Quality Education for All The World Education Forum, held in Dakar (2000), reiterated the commitment of the global community and approved a comprehensive set of goals in the areas of early childhood care in education, primary education, gender, youth and adolescent, adult education and quality of education. Following this commitment, India prepared a National Plan of Education (2002) delineating various programmes and strategies for achieving various Education for All (EFA) Goals. Subsequently, the mid-term assessment of progress of EFA goals, undertaken in 2005, underscored the concern for equity and inclusion and highlighted the need for accelerating the efforts for achieving EFA goals. India, undoubtedly, has made substantial progress towards achieving EFA goals during the last two decades. Adoption of Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act (RTE), 2009 has given further impetus to the national efforts for ensuring quality education for all in a time-bound manner. Providing free and compulsory education to all children is a goal that is enshrined in the Indian Constitution as a Fundamental Right. This, indeed, is also the focus of the World Declaration on Education for All, adopted nearly 25 years ago, in Jomtien. Conclusion Education can play an effective role in social transformation only when all those with a stake in its success work closely together. Civil society groups of different kinds community organisations, parents, teacher associations, professional bodies, women and youth groups and the like have a considerable capacity to contribute to the public education goals set by governments, but encouragement and help from government is needed to release civil society s potential and increase its capacity to carry out these responsibilities. Equally, civil society partnerships with the local private sector and with international firms and agencies can be productive. One important point is that in rural communities of India, there is a high rate of illiteracy. Therefore, rural people need to acquire new skills, new attitudes and new technology. Rural communities should be developed so that they can realize and experience that to have a good quality of life does not necessarily mean access to jobs in urban areas, which generally results in the exodus of rural people to cities. This massive movement of people from rural to urban areas is driven by need for employment and seeking better living conditions, sometimes this leading to crime involvement and family disintegration. These points to the reality that lives of people in rural areas needs to be improved and institutions of higher education can play an important role in this regard. 23 Education is the principal method through which societies transmit knowledge from one generation to another, learn how to develop and accumulate knowledge, preserve certain values and transform others, and introduce social and cultural change in the form of new, non-conventional ideas and values and attitudes, and non-traditional ways of thinking. It is through education that people learn how to 23 Maminza, P.M., The Role of the University of South in the Development of Human Resources in Mpumalanga Province, Stellenbosch University Dissertation, Cape Town, 2009.

12 81 become more socially and politically conscious, and how to increase their ability to acquire and use knowledge to improve the quality of their lives. Education can be used as a tool to empower the individual. Through child centered learning, students are able to see their own role in transformation. Societal change comes from the collective transformation of the individuals within that society. Literacy allows people, particularly those who are marginalized and discriminated against in society, to acquire a critical consciousness. Empowered individuals are better equipped to question and critique societal realities and assumptions and more enabled to change their situation. *****